In the early 20^th century, the emerging field of Home Economics gave educated women an opportunity to become professionals within a respected field of expertise. As new electrical appliances became available in the early 20^th century, home economists became responsible for training housewives in their use. Home economists could translate technical knowledge into every day language and show women how to apply it. 

I have mixed thoughts about the emergence of home economics as a field. They probably stem from the home economics classes I had to take in middle school. While boys learned woodworking and tried not to hit their fingers with hammers. Girls learned to set a table properly and make white sauce without lumps. I’m sure the classes must have had other topics, but those are the ones I remember. The recipe for white sauce, by the way, first appeared in the 1950 Betty Crocker Cook Book. Milk, flour, butter, seasonings, and lots of stirring. Not surprisingly, learning to stir white sauce didn’t teach me any technical knowledge. But enough about my culinary disasters.

The problem women had in the early 20^th century was that, in general, women were considered to be less intelligent than men. Pioneers in the home economics discipline believed that with proper technical skills, women could prove their intelligence and gain respect without crossing male boundaries by, for example, attending chemistry classes.

Home economist Marion Talbot spent most of her career at the University of Chicago where in 1912 she created the Department of Household Administration. The topic of Sanitary Science had previously been a coeducational program housed in the Department of Sociology. But with Talbot’s innovation, the topic was reserved for women only.

“Home economics is the best subject yet found to teach the power of things,” Talbot said. “It is humiliating to be conquered by things.” Talbot and other leaders in home economics believed that as women gained scientific knowledge about food, cleaning, and efficiency, they could make informed decisions for themselves and their families.

Catherine Beecher said much the same thing in 1872:
“The care of a house, the conduct of a home, the management of children, the instruction & government of servants, are as deserving of scientific treatment and scientific professors and lectureships as are the care of farms, the management of manure and crops, and the raising and care of stock.”
But Beecher’s thoughts didn’t found a new academic discipline.

The mantra of the American Home Economic Association established in 1908 was that for women to improve their position, they must follow expert advice from home economists and denounce tradition. And yet, most women continued to perform the same domestic tasks as they did before, albeit with more modern design principles.

Mary Pattison observed in her Principles of Domestic Engineering published in 1915, “our hope is to bring the masculine and feminine mind more closely together in the industry of home-making by raising housework on the one side to the plane of scientific engineering, and by proving on the other, fuller individual returns for every complete and right domestic activity.” And yet, as this 1927 illustration demonstrates, male and female roles remained much the same.

Iowa State College became the first college to offer an undergraduate Bachelor of Science program in the study of household equipment. Between 1930 and 1955, Iowa granted 308 BS degrees. The school followed up with a master’s degree program that taught women how to understand and repair equipment. Both programs proved women could fully understand the new household technology.

Graduates of this and other collegiate programs found positions with utility companies and appliance manufacturers. In 1935, Betty Melcher who worked at Buffalo General Electric, observed “If Mrs. Jones swears she can’t bake a cake and threatens to throw her range out, it is my job to prove to her that she can and incidentally sell her on keeping the range.”

Of course, Betty didn’t need a home economics degree to sell electric ranges. But without it, she had no credentials for the job. In 1949, a woman without a degree in home economics couldn’t possibly know anything about how the new electric ovens worked, or teach middle school girls how to stir a white sauce. And if women and girls didn’t know these things, they would be as ignorant as the greater culture assumed.

It wasn’t until the second wave of feminism that young women had a choice denied to the founders of home economics. In 1960, women were six percent of doctors, three percent of lawyers, and less than one percent of engineers. In 2022, 37 percent of doctors and 15 percent of engineers were women. In 2024, 41 percent of lawyers were women.

Women have broken out of the domestic cage, and have choices Catherine Beecher never imagined. From my perspective, that’s progress. No stirring required.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Ladies Home Journal, 1948; Home Economics Class at Goshen College, 1948; Vacuum cleaner Advertisement, Saturday Evening Post, 1920; Marion Talbot, 1911; Title Page for Beecher’s The New Housekeeper’s Manual, 1873; Country Gentleman, 1927; Electric Stove, 1949; College of DePage President Dr. Ann Rondeau by COD Newsroom, 2018. Glenna Matthews. “Just a Housewife”: The Rise & Fall of Domesticity in America. 1987. Barbara Spindel. “The Secret History of Home Economics Review: Engineering the Everyday.” Wall Street Journal. May 2, 2021.

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This is my second of blog celebrating Women’s History Month. The commemoration gives us many opportunities to cheer women’s achievements. Often, however, the ordinary activities of women’s lives are, if not overlooked, at least unsung. It is impossible to consider women’s history without noting women’s activities in the home, the often invisible work space where women have spent much of their time. Historically, thoughts on household activities were confined to middle class white women who had not only their own homes to look after, but also the education and training of household servants.

In the early American Republic (c.1790-1830), women were praised as Republican Mothers and Angels of the House. Their well-ordered homes were sanctuaries from the stresses men faced on a daily basis, a source of love in a cruel world. Beyond that, women were the custodians of civic virtue who upheld the morals of their husbands and children. Both roles were crucial to establish a model American Republic of domestic tranquility.

However, as Abigail Adams had warned, in exchange for their invaluable service to the young nation, women lost their separate identity at the time they married. With few exceptions, many women could not sign contracts, let alone vote. Married women could not own property. Children belonged to their fathers.

In 1841 Catherine Beecher, an unmarried minister’s daughter, published A Treatise on Domestic Economy. The book made Catherine a household name and gave her an independent identity and income. Catherine built on the model of Republican Motherhood to assert that only women’s efforts in the home could prevent society from fragmenting under the pressure of industrialization, immigration, and growing cities with their noise and dirt. Catherine believed that if women gave up efforts to actively participate in civil society, they could claim their rightful place as society’s moral leaders in education and philanthropy. Catherine emphasized that by creating well-ordered homes, women could hold society together.

Catherine’s vision of a well-ordered home was a structure that by today’s standards seems like more than a full-time job. The housekeeper aka wife must be knowledgeable about health, nutrition, cleanliness, appropriate clothing, exercise, manners, orderly habits, charitable giving, and able to supervise domestic workers. And everything must be done efficiently which is why Catherine included instructions for building houses and arranging work spaces, including this plan for laundry and food storage rooms. No detail can be overlooked, including locations for the ice closet which is next to the linen closet and the laundry area with its own stove.

You cannot make women contented with cooking and cleaning, and you need not try. — Ellen Swallow Richards

Ellen Swallow Richards is generally viewed as the founder of the discipline of Home Economics, a profession that welcomed professionally trained women scientists into its ranks while uplifting women who were still trying to figure out how to prepare nutritious food. She and her disciples explained to middle class women that thanks to improvements in science and efficiency, they can provide a healthy home for their families with such efficiency that not only could they forgo the necessity of servants, but also have time for themselves. But the women must be diligent in their efforts.

Ellen herself was a highly educated woman. In 1868 she entered Vassar College to study astronomy, receiving her bachelor’s degree two years later and embarking on a quest for a Master of Arts degree, which she also received after writing her thesis on her chemical analysis of iron ore. Armed with academic degrees, Ellen applied for several positions as a commercial chemist, but no one would hire a woman in such a masculine field.

Disappointed but undeterred, Ellen applied for admittance to the school that became the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and was admitted as a special student. The designation made it clear that MIT would not open general admissions to women. It also meant Ellen did not have to pay tuition. In 1873, Ellen received a bachelor of science degree. For the next five years Ellen taught chemistry and established a Women’s Laboratory without a salary or official academic appointment.

In 1875 Ellen married Robert Richards, chair of the MIT mining & engineering department. MIT graciously allowed Ellen to continue volunteering her academic services and also to donate $1000 annually to further women’s scientific education. [Note: One thousand dollars in 1875 was the equivalent of about $29,568.36 in 2013.] Ellen developed a curriculum stressing chemical analysis, industrial chemistry, mineralogy, and applied biology.

Ellen decided that the best way to provide a career for other women scientists and to allow women to pursue interests outside the home was to apply basic scientific principles to the home with an emphasis on nutrition, food safety, appropriate clothing, physical fitness, sanitation, and efficiency in carrying out household tasks so women could pursue interests outside the home. Ellen Richards had the same basic approach as Catherine Beecher, though whether the two women would agree is difficult to say. Ellen would probably argue that her academic qualifications outranked Catherine’s thoughtful advice. In 1882 Richards published The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning: A Manual for Housekeepers. The Chemistry of Cooking sounds so much more official than A Treatise on Domestic Economy, even if both authors had the same goals of efficient households and women who could turn their talents to social problems in the greater society.

To Produce and Perpetuate Perfection—or as Near to Perfection as may be Attained in a Household

Just in time to spread scientific ideas about domestic economy, the first issue of Good Housekeeping Magazine appeared on May 2, 1885. In its early years, Good Housekeeping published numerous articles on food safety and food adulteration. In 1888, an article discussed candy contaminated with pulverized asbestos, and in 1902 there was an article about formaldehyde in infant formula, milk and cream.

As the century turned, running a household was becoming complicated. Some of the confusion was due to the increasing amount of household equipment powered by electricity. But a more powerful challenge was changing domestic expectations as professional women carved out a career path for themselves and their sisters. What would this new world look like?

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Liberty in the form of the Goddess of Youth by Mabel Brady Garvan Collection 1796; The Artist & His Family by James Peale 1795; Floor Plan of Laundry & Food Storage Rooms from the New Housekeeper’s Manual 1873; Ellen Swallow Richards between 1890 & 1900; From the Boston Cooking School Magazine 1896; Good Housekeeping Cover by John Cecil Clay 1908. Glenna Matthews. “Just a Housewife”: The Rise & Fall of Domesticity in America. 1987.

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The post Women’s Roles: From Republican Motherhood to Scientific Household Management first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Women’s History Month begins March 1. It’s a month designated to celebrate women’s achievements, talents, history, and aspirations. A month in which women’s efforts to achieve economic, social, and legal can be highlighted. So, it seems fitting to take a moment to highlight the timeline of events that led to this month with its focus on women.

The idea that women contribute to the historical record, have a history as valuable as the history made by men, and deserve the same legal and economic rights as men has always been an extremist one.

In 1776 Abigail Adams wrote a letter to her husband John who was attending a congress to discuss American independence from Britain while she remained at home running their farm and raising their children. I long to hear that you have declared an independency, she wrote, and by the way, in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember, all men would be tyrants if they could.

A sentiment to which John responded, As to your extraordinary code of laws, I cannot but laugh.

It wasn’t until the early 20th century that Americans slowly saw women’s legal status change.

The Socialist Party of America organized the first Women’s Day on February 28, 1909 on the one-year anniversary of the 15,000 women who marched across New York City demanding shorter hours, better pay, and the right to vote. In 1913 socialists in Europe and America declared March 8 as International Women’s Day, a date that continues to be observed.

The 1913 postcard on the left explains the reason women wanted to vote: For the work of a day, For the taxes we pay, For the laws we obey, We want something to say.

The American campaign for women’s right to vote began in 1848 and proceeded on a state-by-state basis until August 18, 1920 when the 19^th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified. Two days later the Secretary of State signed the proclamation granting American women the right to vote. A mere twenty-eight words marked the beginning of change in women’s legal status. “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” The amendment did not, it should be noted, remove systemic impediments that prevented American citizens from voting. Neither did it change the legal or social status of women. The struggle for equality continued.

Fast-forward fifty years. In 1971, Congresswoman Bella Abzug of New York introduced House Joint Resolution 52 to designate August 26 as Women’s Equality Day. The resolution stated, in part, that Women’s Equality Day is a symbol of women’s continued fight for equal rights, and, that the president is authorized and requested to issue a proclamation annually in commemoration of women’s suffrage.

In 1978 the Celebration of International Women’s Day morphed into a Women’s History Week. Nine years later, in 1987, the National Women’s History Project petitioned Congress to pass Public Law 100-9 to designate the entire month of March as Women’s History Month.

“If they don’t give you seat at the table, bring a folding chair.” — Shirley Chisholm

In 1968, Shirley Chisholm began her first term in the United States Congress. She was the first African American woman to serve in Congress, and in 1972 became the first woman and first African American to seek nomination as president of the United States.

During her tenure in Congress, Chisholm championed racial and gender equality, fought poverty, and opposed the war in Vietnam. In her later years, Chisholm said, “I want to be remembered as a woman who dared to be a catalyst for change.”

Women’s History Month is a time to remember the courage and accomplishments of women from all walks of life. Today’s blog is the first of three blogs for Women’s History Month. The movement to establish Home Economics as a profession is the topic of my next blog. And the last will touch on the social trend of trad wife, a movement based in current social media.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

We Can Do it by J. Howard Miller 1942; Abigail Adams by Benjamin Blyth 1766; Votes for Women Postcard c1913; Bella Abzug, 1970s; Shirley Chisholm, 1972. Women’s Equality Day. National Women’s History Museum. Aug. 26, 2013. Debra Michals. “Shirley Chisholm.” National Women’s History Museum. 2015.

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Today Judith Leyster (1609-1660) is one of the best known Dutch female painters of the 17th century. But it was not always so. After her death, Leyster’s work fell into obscurity, often attributed to Franz Hals. But, Leyster signed her work with a distinctive monogram of herself with a start shooting towards the right. It’s a small talisman, but in 1893 after the Louvre acquired one of her paintings attributed to Franz Hals, scholars noticed Leyster’s monogram and began looking at other paintings attributed to Hals.

In comparison to the artists profiled below, Leyster painted about life with portraits of musicians, tavern scenes, and views of domestic life. Leyster was the first woman in the Netherlands to become a master painter, a title she received in 1633 after being admitted to the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke. With this recognition, Leyster was able to open her own studio and accept students.

Maria van Oosterwijck

Many artists took a more somber look at the world around them. The painting on the left is the Vanitas Still Life, created by Maria van Oosterwijck (1630-1693) in 1690. In the 17th century, vanitas paintings reminded viewers that worldly pleasures were essentially useless, since death came to everyone. The images of transient flowers, in this case roses, tulips and irises, conveyed the sense that life is fleeting. And, should the audience require further proof that the allegory applies to them, there is the skull at the center of the picture. A Bible rests on the marble table. Additional symbols are the sunflower which represents God, and the floral wreath surrounding the skull—a crown of righteousness that God will bestow on individuals after death. I’m not sure if the sunflower and the wreath were supposed to provide comfort to viewers. Perhaps. The sensibilities of 17th century Dutch people differed from ours.

The paper slipping over the side of the table contains the key to the painting, with biblical references. As an example, the skull is connected with Romans 5:12 “Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned.” Maria’s father and grandfather were both ministers, and she herself was very religious.

Maria van Oosterwijk was a famous for floral still lives. Her paintings could be found in the collections of Emperor Leopold I, Louis XIV, and William III. Maria was an anomaly for her time. She never married, though she did raise an orphaned nephew. During her life, Maria produced 30 paintings, including this self-portrait with a palette and brushes representing her profession, and a Bible to demonstrate her piety.

As part of its commitment to include more female artists in the Gallery of Honor, the Rijksmuseum purchased Vanitas Still Life in 2023 from a German collector for $1.4 million.

The Amsterdam Pallas

Rachel Ruysch (1664-1750) painted The Still Life with Flowers in a Glass Vase shown on the left. A prolific artist known throughout Europe, Ruysch commanded prices as between 750 and 1200 guilders per painting when Rembrandt’s fees averaged 500 guilders. Johann Wilhelm, the Elector of the Palatinate in Germany, made Ruysch his official court painter, but allowed her to reside in Amsterdam as long as she sent him one painting annually.

Ruysch grew up in a family of artists. Her father Frederick Ruysch was a prominent botanist. Ruysch combined both skills with her still lives, and incorporated flowers not often seen in the Netherlands in her work.

In 1693 at the age of 29, Ruysch married Juriaen Pool, an Amsterdam portrait painter, eventually giving birth to ten children. Unlike most female artists, she continued to paint after her marriage, signing her own name to her work. In 1723, Ruysch won 75,000 guilders in a lottery, and briefly slowed her artistic production.

Ruysch and her husband joined the Confrerie Pictura in The Hague in 1701. She was the first woman to be admitted and remained a member for 20 years.

Ruysch collaborated with Michael Van Musscher, a portrait painter, to create what might be called a self-portrait. Ruysch contributed the floral arrangement to Van Musscher’s picture of an artist in her studio. The album of floral studies in the foreground invites the viewer to compare the two works of art.

These three artists were not the only women who painted in the Dutch Golden Age. Maria Sibylla Merian, Magdalena van de Passe, Clara Peeters, Maria Schalcken, Anna Maria van Schurman, and Alida Withoos also entered and thrived in the crowded field of art in the 17th century. At a time when most artists were male, these women made their own place.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Self-Portrait by Judith Leyster; Judith Leyster Signature; Jolly Drinker by Judith Leyster; The Serenade by Judith Leyster; Vanitas Still Life by Maria van Oosterwijck; Portrait of Maria Van Oosterwijck by Wallerant Vaillant; The Still Life with Flowers in a Glass Vase by Rachel Ruysch; Rachel Ruysch in her Studio by Rachel Ruysch & Michiel Van Musscher. Katie White. “Rachel Ruysch’s Impossible Still Lifes Outsold Rembrandt.” Artnet. April 16, 2025. Richard Widdington. “Long Forgotten Dutch Artist Finally Claims Her Spot in the Rijksmuseum. Artnet. June 3, 2019. “Women Artists of the Dutch Golden Age.” National Museum of Women in the Arts.

The post 17th Century Female Artists at the Rijksmuseum first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

The Gallery of Honor in the Rijksmuseum leads the visitor so unerringly to Rembrandt’s Night Watch that the paintings displayed in its alcoves are easily overlooked, if not for guides who point out the paintings she or he finds most worthy of notice. Paintings by Johannes Vemeer, for example, have many more viewers pressing towards their framed canvases than more prosaic group portraits of charitable organizations or the works of once famous artists who are now overlooked.

Frans Hals’s Marriage Portrait of Isaac Massa & Beatrix van der Laen (1622) is well-known, but not a crowd pleaser. I, however, find it endearing. As indicated by his clothing, Massa was a successful merchant. In 1622, Massa married a burgomaster’s daughter. Hals’s painting is not simply a wedding portrait, but a story in itself. The couple seem quite pleased with themselves, for reasons revealed in the picture’s symbolism. To the bride’s right, is a symbol of the garden of love. On the groom’s left is an eryngium thistle, a symbol of conjugal fidelity.

The couple’s clothing demonstrates their material success. The Dutch enjoyed wearing colors, but in portraits of the upper classes, the sitters invariably wore black, because black was the most expensive dye available. Thus, wearing black clothing in a portrait was a clear sign of wealth. Likewise, the ruff around Beatrix’s neck.

Dutch portraits featured ruffs that might be up to 200 pleats. The length of fabric to create such pleats could be well over 20 meters. The laundress starched the fabric and set the pleats with a hot poking stick. During the course of the 17th century, ruffs were replaced by broad lace or linen collars similar to what Isaac is wearing.

Both the bride and groom wear lace cuffs which were made of thin linen that was pleated and then edged with either bobbin or needle lace.

Lucas de Clercq & Feyntje van Steenkiste

Thirteen years after painting Isaac & Beatrix, Hals painted pendant portraits of another couple: Lucas de Clercq and Feyntje van Steenkiste. Lucas was a successful Haarlem potash merchant who married the daughter of his supplier in 1629. Hals painted the couple nine years later. The couple had three children before Feyntje died in 1640.

The Mennonite couple wears black clothing to modestly signify their wealth without boasting of it too much. He wears a lace collar; she, a ruff. The sling on Lucas’s arm was a fashion accessory.

The Regentesses

Amsterdam was a wealthy city during the Dutch Golden Age, and with wealth came the responsibility of sharing with those who were less fortunate: those who were sick, orphaned, aged, or feeble. Among them, the lepers housed just outside the city.

The Lepers’ House was governed by four regents and three regentesses. Men took care of the general management of the charity, while women concerned themselves with supervising those who served within the hospital and purchasing supplies. The Rijksmuseum has two paintings of regentesses. Visitors do not spend much time looking at these portraits. Neither the artists nor the subjects hold particular interest. But, these women also have stories to tell.

In 1624, Werner van den Valckert painted this portrait of the Three Regentesses and the Housemother of the Amsterdam Lepers’ Asylum. The woman with the flat collar and head band is the housemother. All of the women wear black, but only the regentesses have lace at their wrists, ruff collars, and diadem caps.

In the background, the viewer can see the story of Lazarus, the beggar who begged for mercy from the rich man. In life, the rich man had more than he needed while Lazarus starved. In death, Lazarus went to paradise and the rich man to Hades — an apt reminder to the viewer of the importance of charity.

The women are shown with the symbols of their office: the Bible with the story of Lazarus marked, bags of money and a slate for keeping accounts.

Ferdinand Bol painted the Portrait of the Three Regentesses of the Leprozenhuis in 1668. We have names for these women. From left to right, the women are Clara Abba, Elisabeth van Duijnen, & Agatha Munter. Wearing black garments and fashionable lace collars and cuffs, they too are shown with the symbols of their office — coins, a pen and inkwell, and an account book. Van Duijinen was the treasurer and Munter the secretary. Munter holds out open hands, though whether she is giving or receiving is not clear. Van Duijinen is a widow, as shown by her hood.

The regentesses demonstrate that women in the Dutch Golden Age exercised a certain amount of autonomy through their participation in charitable activities. And clearly, they had access to funds to pay artists to preserve their likeness in charitable history. Moreover, their facial expressions indicate a certain satisfaction with their lot in life.

But, I wondered, where were the female artists? More on the next blog.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Marriage Portrait of Isaac Massa & Beatrix van der Laen by Frans Hals; Photo of Eryngium Bourgati by Ramin Nakisa; Portrait of Lucas de Clercq by Hals; Portrait of Feyntje van Steenkiste by Hals; Three Regentesses and the Housemother of the Amsterdam Lepers’ Asylum by Werner van den Valckert; Portrait of the Three Regentesses of the Leprozenhuis by Ferdinand Bol. Sophie Ploeg. “Seventeenth Century Dutch Dress.” Sophie Ploeg. Feb. 13, 2018. Ploeg. “Dress in Seventeenth Century Portraiture. Sophie Ploeg. Dec. 31, 2022.

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Next week, April 20-26, 2025 is Administrative Professionals Week. It’s an annual event the last week in April, with Administrative Professionals Day in the middle. This year it falls on Wednesday, April 23.

Official celebrations for office warriors began in 1942 when the National Secretaries Association was founded. The nation was gearing up for World War II, and office workers were in short supply. The association hoped to attract more white female workers into office work.

The preponderance of women in the office began in the late 19th century as office machines became the norm. According to the 1888 Manual of the Typewriter, “The typewriter is especially adapted to feminine fingers. They seem to be made for typewriting. The typewriting involves no hard labor and no more skill than playing the piano.”

[Note the illustration on the right. The typewriter looks nothing like a piano.]

The federal government hired women during the civil war, because there weren’t enough men available to clip treasury bills. I don’t know what “clipping” treasury bills entailed, but it doesn’t sound too difficult. The government soon discovered a large pool of qualified women who could be paid a lower salary than men doing the same job. In 1866, federal law set the maximum annual salary for women at $900, while men were paid between $1200 and $1800. As then Librarian of Congress A. R. Spofford noted, women “could give good service for less pay than men on his staff, thus resulting in economy.”

Enter New Office Equipment

Just in time for the 1890 census a new office machine appeared. Herman Hollerith introduced his punched card processing equipment in 1889. The Census Bureau acquired the machines and subdivided the operations. Male employees complained about the pace of work and difficulty of using the machines. They often quit after their first day on the job. But, according the New York Sun women worked faster and had a more exact touch. Soon 80 percent of the census computers were female.

Women, it appeared, were also more adept at both stenography and typing. Their ability to do routine tasks made women ideal for repetitive work. Women’s jobs did not lead to upward mobility, and the pay was low. Marriage bars were also common. A woman was expected to leave paid employment when she married. Thus she would not be in the work force long enough to seek promotion to a better paying position.

From the officer worker’s perspective, there were advantages to office work. At a time when women’s other professional employment options were teaching and nursing, office work provided a third alternative. Young women seeking office careers stayed in school longer and the salary was attractive compared to other opportunities for women with a high school education. A file clerk making $12 a week could aspire to run the office with a salary of $80 a week.

And, of course, there was the scarce position of “Private Secretary.” For the employer, having a private secretary was a sign of status. Being a private secretary was equally prestigious.

From 1952 to 1957 Ann Sothern starred in Private Secretary, an early television sit-com about a secretary who helped her boss succeed. The character’s backstory was as a single woman and WAC veteran of World War II. Her office was state of the art with IBM typewriters and telephone gear from Western Electric. In short, she was the perfect office wife.

The more recent period drama Mad Men set in a 1960s advertising agency depicted a time of transition, if not change. Character Joan Harris, for example, ran the office at the Sterling Cooper Advertising Agency. The element of change occurred in Peggy Olson’s story as she rose from typist to copy writer.

Times change. So does equipment. Office workers are as likely to be men as women. But the necessity of having people in the office who understand the filing system, can keep up with daily details, and a myriad of other seemingly small tasks doesn’t change. Office workers keep the organization running smoothly.

Say ‘Thank You,’ &

Celebrate Administrative Professionals Every Day

Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Victory Waits on Your Fingers, 1941; Jewett Typewriter, 1902; Typist Examines Ribbon, 1918; Ann Sothern as Susie McNamara, 1954; Busy Office Lady. Mary C Brinton. “Gendered Offices: A Comparative-Historical Examination of Clerical Work in Japan and the United States.” Sharon Hartman Strom. “Light Manufacturing: The Feminization of American Office Work 1900-1930.” Industrial & Labor Relations Review. Vol. 43. No. 1. 53-71.

The post Administrative Professionals Day – Celebrate Support Staff first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Monday, March 17 is the annual celebration of St. Patrick, usually accompanied by leprechaun illustrations and green beer. In recent years, a meme depicting St. Gertrude of Neville stroking a cat she holds in her arms appears about the same time. Caption: “It happens every year: Patrick this and Patrick that. No one remembers me and my cats.”

Who Was St Gertrude of Nivelles?

Similar to many early female saints, Gertrude (628-659) grew up in a palace. Her father was Pepin of Landen, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia in Merovingian France. He served two kings: Dagobert I who died in 629 and Sigebert III.

An early story about Gertrude describes a royal banquet where Sigebert III asked a ten-year-old Gertrude if she would like to marry the son of an unnamed Duke of the Austrasians. Gertrude apparently didn’t think much of the idea. According to the story, she lost her temper and flatly rejected the proposal saying she would have no earthly spouse, only Christ. No wonder she became a nun.

After Pepin died in 640, his widow Itta of Metz considered what might happen to her and Gertrude, and decided the best option for them both was to build a double monastery of monks and nuns at Nivelles where she and her daughter could retire. This would also secure family lands from being seized via a forced marriage involving Gertrude. Indeed, to prevent Gertrude’s abduction, Itta shaved Gertrude’s head, leaving only a tonsure.

When Itta died in 652, Gertrude became the abbess and began collecting saints’ relics and holy books. She also welcomed teachers, particularly Irish monks. Gertrude appointed others to administer the monastery so she could focus on studying scripture, and caring for the sick, the elderly, and the poor by building churches, monasteries and hospices.

In her personal practice, Gertrude fasted and kept vigils to such a degree that by the age of 32, she was in poor health. She resigned as abbess, and appointed her niece Wulfetrud to the position so she could devote herself to prayer. In March 659, sensing the end of her life was near, Gertrude contacted Ultan, an Irish monk, to ask if he knew the hour of her death. He predicted she would die the next day during Mass. Ultan also advised Gertrude she would pass joyously, because Bishop Patrick and the angels were prepared to receive her. And so it came to be.

Gertrude’s Miracles

The path to sainthood requires authenticated miracles. Gertrude’s first miracle occurred as she stood at the altar of Pope Sixtus II. While praying, she saw a flaming sphere that illuminated the entire basilica. The vision lasted about half an hour.

Gertrude’s second miracle occurred when men, possibly Irish monks, were sailing across the sea. A violent storm blew up, and a sea monster appeared. The sailors, of course, were terrified. In desperation, the believers called to Gertrude to save them. Immediately, the storm died and the monster dove back into the sea.

And the Cats?

There is no hagiography about Gertrude and cats. However, she is associated with driving out rodents who were so plentiful they ran up Gertrude’s crozier and onto her hood. Cringe! Since cats are known predators of rodents, it is probable the monastery had numerous working cats. The public association of St. Gertrude and cats began about 1982.

A Few Patrick Factoids

St. Patrick is celebrated as the saint who drove the snakes out of Ireland. A marvelous feat, to be sure, but apparently there were no snakes in Ireland to drive out. The term ‘snakes’ was an allegory for non-Christian practices.

St. Patrick has never been canonized by the Catholic Church, which means he is not, technically, a saint. However, in 1631, the church did establish a feast day for Patrick.

March 17 is the day of Patrick’s death. Prior to becoming a popular saint’s day, March 17 honored Ostara, the goddess who brought nature’s rebirth and balance.

And, about that green beer. It wasn’t until 1961 that Irish citizens could celebrate St. Patrick’s Day at the local pub, because St. Patrick’s Day falls during Lent. Sláinte!

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

St. Gertrude of Nivelles, 1520; St. Gertrude of Nivelles from the Hours of Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg; St. Gertrude with Augustinian Canoness, 16th century; St. Gertrude with Mice, St Patrick Catholic Church, Junction City, Ohio. Photo by Nyehob; Consumed mug of green beer by Mconderan. Rene Ostberg.” Meet Gertrude, Cat Lady of the Catholic Church.” U.S. Catholic. March 16, 2020.

The post St. Gertrude’s Cats first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Pillion is a new word in my vocabulary. According to Merriam-Webster, a pillion is a light saddle for women consisting chiefly of a cushion, OR a pad or cushion put on behind a man’s saddle, chiefly for a woman to ride on, OR a motorcycle or bicycle saddle for a passenger. The word pillion seems like it might be French, but is actually derived from either Scots Gaelic or Irish. The first known use of the word was in 1503.

The illustration on the left is from 1806 and depicts a woman riding pillion behind a man. In the upper sketch, the horse is walking, the preferred pace for riding pillion if the rider hopes to stay connected to her seat. The lower sketch demonstrates what happens if the horse goes into a gallop. The rider hangs onto the man as tightly as she can. Sometimes she isn’t able to hold on tightly enough, and has a brief moment of flight before crashing into the ground as depicted in the illustration on the right.

The pillion itself, as described in the 1806 Once a Week periodical, was a thick, firm, well-stuffed, wide and level cushion, extending quite across the broadest part of the horse, with two deep flaps, one on either side. The rider in some, but I suspect not all, instances had a footstool for her feet formed by a long stirrup on one side. Over the horse’s tail, there was a leather handle the passenger could grasp.

As a writer of historical fiction, I encounter many details that lead me into further research. My current project takes place during the infamous witch trials of 17th century Salem. The local constable has to transport one of the prisoners, Sarah Good, from Salem Village [now Danvers] to Ipswich Jail. Accounts say the prisoner rode pillion behind the constable. Hmm, I thought, how does one ride pillion? So, off I went for a quick mental research trip. As it happened, Sarah Good managed to slide off the horse and attempted to escape. Alas, she failed to reach her goal. Women continued to “ride pillion” into the early 20th century, depending on their locale.

Anne of Bohemia’s Sidesaddle

In the 14th century, the first modifications were made to convert “riding pillion” into riding in a sidesaddle arrangement. The first well-known practitioner of this transition was Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394) who, at the age of fifteen, left her home in Bohemia to marry Richard II of England.

The match was not particularly lucrative. Anne did not bring Richard a dowry. In fact, Richard paid 20,000 florins [over 5 million dollars in modern currency] to Anne’s brother Wenceslas IV of Bohemia. Anne was the sister of Sigismund, the Holy Roman Emperor, so there were some diplomatic and trade benefits.

Anne and her entourage had a journey of approximately 600 miles over varying terrain from Prague to Calais where she boarded a vessel bound for England. The only practical way for her to travel was to ride horseback. However for reasons of modesty, Ann could not straddle a horse with her legs apart, no matter how many skirts might cover them.

So Anne rode a palfrey, a horse prized for its smooth, ambling gait. [An ambling gate was a four-beat gate that was faster than a walk but slower than a cantor.] In particular, the palfrey was considered an appropriate horse for a woman to ride. In the above illustration the female is riding astride. Anne, however, rode on a saddle mounted onto the horse’s back. Anne sat sideways at a right angle to the horse’s head and could not control her horse, which was led by a man.

The marriage, incidentally, appears to have been a happy one, though the couple had no children. Anne died from the plague in 1394.

The Sidesaddle Evolves

In the 16th century, Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) improved what had become known as a sidesaddle by devising a saddle with a single pommel so the rider could hook her right leg over the saddle. The rider could now sit with her shoulders forward in the saddle, and control her own horse using the reins. Moreover, the horse could canter without dislodging the rider. It only seems fitting that one of Catherine’s famous quotations is The first lesson I ever learned was never to wait for a man’s rescue.

Overtime, sidesaddles continued to be improved. During the 19th century a leaping head pommel provided greater security for the rider so that women could participate in hunting and jumping events while continuing to maintain their modesty.

During the early 20th century, riding sidesaddle became increasingly rare until Downton Abbey became a popular television series set between 1912 and 1926. Social media has also popularized riding sidesaddle. Sidesaddles and their riders can be found at horse show rings, historical reenactments, parades, and various equestrian competitions such as dressage.

A chance source about Sarah Good’s transport to Ipswich Jail introduced me to historic details about women’s modesty and control when riding on horseback. No wonder I enjoy writing historical fiction so much.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Riding Pillion-1, Once a Week, Series 1, Vol. 3, 1860; Riding Pillion-2, Ibid; Coldrich a Bozena, 14th century; Anne de Foix, Queen of Hungary & Bohemia, 16th century; Katharina von Medici; Gray Parker from Horsemanship for Women, 1887; Mrs. Thomas N. Carter, 1902. Merriam Webster page for pillion. Margaret Evans. “The Heritage & Skill of Riding Sidesaddle.” Horse Journals. Jan. 9, 2021.

The post Riding Pillion first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

School days, school days, dear old golden rule days,

Readin’ and ‘ritin’ and ‘rithmetic, Taught to the tune of a hick’ry stick,

You were my queen in calico, I was your bashful barefoot beau

And you wrote on my slate, I love you Joe, 

When we were a couple of kids.

Will D. Cobb and Gus Edwards wrote School Days in 1907 from the nostalgic perspective of an older couple who probably grew up together in the same rural town. Many of us still look back on our “school days” with a bit of nostalgia, if only because we were younger then.

Rules for Teachers

As children and teachers return to classrooms, the poster “Rules for Teachers” also reappears. These rules were probably not as consistent as the posters make them appear, but the sentiment was probably universal. People didn’t become teachers due to good working conditions, but because they needed a job. The rules reflect social attitudes towards teachers — and they aren’t as pleasant as they appear on the Hallmark Channel.

The Rules in 1872

1. Teachers each day will fill lamps, clean lamp chimneys.

2. Each teacher will bring a bucket of water and a scuttle of coal for the day’s session.

3. Make your pens carefully. You may whittle nibs to the individual tastes of the pupils.

4. Men teachers may take one evening each week for courting purposes or two evenings a week if they go to church regularly.

5. After 10 hours in school, the teacher may spend the remaining time reading the Bible or other good books.

6. Women teachers who marry or engage in unseemly conduct will be dismissed.

7. Every teacher should lay aside from each pay a good sum of his earnings for his benefit during his declining years so that he will not become a burden on society.

8. Any teacher who smokes, uses liquor in any form, frequents pool or public halls, or gets shaved in a barber shop will give good reason to suspect his worth, intention, integrity and honesty

9. The teacher who performs his labor faithfully and without fault for 5 years will be given an increase of 25 cents per week in his pay, provided the Board of Education approve.

Notice that male teachers are allowed time for courting purposes, but female teachers who marry will be dismissed.

I was intrigued that male teachers should not go the barber shop. Perhaps when a quarter was still worth a quarter, it was too extravagant to spend two bits on a shave and a haircut, even if it was only on a Saturday. Fun Fact: A shot of whiskey also cost two bits.

The Rules in 1915

Times changed. These rules seem more directly aimed at women.

1. You will not marry during the term of your contract.

2. You are not to keep company with men.

3. You must be home between the hours of 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. unless attending a school function.

4. You may not loiter downtown in ice cream stores.

5. You may not travel beyond the city limits unless you have the permission of the chairman of the board.

6. You may not ride in a carriage or automobile with any man unless he is your father or brother.

7. You may not smoke cigarettes.

8. You may not dress in bright colors.

9. You may under no circumstances dye your hair.

10. You must wear at least 2 petticoats.

11. Your dresses must not be any shorter than 2 inches above the ankle.

12. To keep the school neat and clean, you must sweep the floor at least once daily, scrub the floor at least once a week with hot, soapy water, clean the blackboards at least once a day and start the fire at 7 a.m. so the room will be warm by 8 a.m.

It occurs to me that if a female teacher cannot keep company with men, she is unlikely to marry. This restriction on marriage continued into the 1930s when married female teachers were routinely dismissed, because a married woman had someone to support her. If she continued to teach, she would deprive someone else of a job. In addition, a married  female teacher was likely to become pregnant, and have to leave her job anyway. After World War II began, many women went to work in factories, thus causing a shortage of teachers. Suddenly, married women were less undesirable.

Why Couldn’t Teachers “Loiter” in Ice Cream Parlors?

But, why couldn’t teachers “loiter” in ice cream parlors. I suppose if a teacher had a dish of ice cream and left, that was okay, but she could not loiter on the premises. [Loiter: to stand or wait idly, without apparent purpose.]

Apparently ice cream parlors had a reputation as dens of iniquity. In 1895, a man from New York testified to the Senate that he knew of several ice cream parlors that were covers for prostitution.

In the early 1900s, ice cream was considered a “foreign” product, and ice cream parlors a recruiting location for prostitution and human trafficking, which was then called white slavery.

In Chicago, there was a curfew ice cream parlor hours, because, according to a 1911 report, ice cream parlors attracted gropers, flirts, and girls who told boys they could be ‘had.’ 

Wishing students and teachers, whether in-person or on-line, a successful and happy school year.!

“You’re off to great places! Today is your day! You’re off to Great Places! You’re off and away!“

— Dr. Seuss, Oh, The Places You’ll Go

Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources:

School Days 1905; School Bus by VectorOpenStock; The Celebrated Triumph Dovetailed & Doweled 1881; September-Back to Work-Back to School-Back to Books, 1940, NARA; 1880s Ice Cream Parlor; Theda Bara, When a Woman Sins, 1918; Recipe for Courtship, 1805; Ice Cream Cup by Killarney; Symbol of Education by Rflor. Erin Blakemore. “Why Ice Cream Parlors Were Once Considered Evil.” Mental Floss. Jul 15, 2017.

The post Rules for Teachers — No Loitering in Ice Cream Parlors first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

On June 4, 1919 Congress approved the 19^th Amendment, also known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, which states that “The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” Note the wording does not specifically give women the right to vote. It merely takes away sex as grounds for restricting it.

Congressional passage of the amendment was a significant milestone on the movement to grant women the right to vote, an idea first proposed at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. In 1919, there were 48 states in the Union, but only 15 states gave women full voting rights.*

Public Pressure for Women’s Voting Rights

The National American Woman Suffrage Association under the direction of Carrie Chapman Catt organized state-by-state campaigns. Catt’s strategy emphasized that if every state allowed women to vote, a national amendment was not necessary.

Alice Paul, head of the National Women’s Party, disagreed with Catt. She thought Congress should pass a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women the right to vote and send the amendment to the states for ratification.

To generate more public awareness about women’s fight for the vote, Paul created public events to showcase women’s accomplishments. The Women’s Suffrage** Parade held in Washington D. C. on  March 3, 1913, the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration demonstrated women’s committment. Eight thousand women marched on Pennsylvania Avenue, displaying banners and floats from the Capitol to the White House. There were an estimated half a million spectators, not all of whom supported women’s right to vote.

President Wilson did not specifically oppose women’s voting rights, but, he said, women needed to be patient.

In his remarks to the Suffrage Convention on Sept. 8, 1916, President Wilson observed that women wanted to vote “not merely because the women are discontented. It is because the women have seen visions of duty, and that is something which we not only cannot resist, but, if we be true Americans, we do not wish to resist. . . .I have not come to ask you to be patient, because you have been, but I have come to congratulate you that there was a force behind you that will beyond any peradventure be triumphant, and for which you can afford a little while to wait.”

Alice Paul, among others, was tired of waiting. In response to President Wilson’s advice that women should wait a little longer, she organized over 1,000 Silent Sentinels, protestors who picketed the White House holding signs with slogans, such as “Mr. President, how long must women wait for liberty?”

The pickets were subject to verbal and physical attacks from spectators. America’s entry into World War I did not curb their activities. Eventually, Wilson had the women arrested on the charge of obstructing traffic. But no sooner did one group of women go to jail, than another group came to replace them. Soon over 100 women were in jail. Alice Paul led a hunger strike. Jailers responded with twice daily force-feedings, an action that generated public sympathy.

While the Silent Sentinels continued their vigil, the NAWSA mobilized women for the war effort. Women joined the Women’s Land Army to free men for military service. Eight million women volunteered with the American Red Cross. Seven thousand women became “Hello Girls” – the switchboard operators who worked for the Army Signal Corps. Over 22,000 women joined the Army and Navy Nurse Corps.

Wilson Finally Supports Women’s Right to Vote

On Sept. 30, 1918 – five weeks before midterm elections – President Wilson addressed the Senate Chamber. “We have made partners of women in this war . . . Shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege?” Wilson called on Senators to pass the Susan B. Anthony Amendment granting women the right to vote.

On October 1, 1918, the Senate considered the 19th Amendment, but it failed to meet the required two-thirds majority by two votes. Five weeks later, Democrats lost their congressional majority in the midterm elections.

On June 4, 1919, Senators prepared to vote again. After the House of Representatives passed the amendment 304:89, the fight moved to the Senate Chamber. Suffragists sat silently in the gallery. The vote passed 56:25. Suffragists applauded for two minutes, and then began preparations for the fight for ratification.

The 19th Amendment was ratified by the states on August 18, 1920, now known as Women’s Equality Day.

*The states granting women the right to vote before the 19th Amendment was ratified were:

• 1890 — Wyoming
• 1896 — Utah & Idaho
• 1893 — Colorado
• 1910 — Washington
• 1911 — California
• 1912 — Oregon, Arizona & Kansas
• 1914 — Nevada & Montana

** Suffrage: The right to vote in public elections.

Sandra’s Books: Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Congressional Union Women’s Suffrage Pin, 1917; Official Program: NAWSA Procession, 1913; Float depicting Women of the Bible Lands, March 1913; From Tacoma Times, 1914; Suffragists Picket White House, 1917; Back Our Girls, 1918; Women in Dayton OH practice voting, 1920. “Women in World War I,” National Park Service; Kimberly A. Hamlin. “The Forgotten Suffragists.” Humanities. May 31, 2019; Lesley Kennedy. “What the 19th Amendment Did Not Guarantee All Women The Right to Vote.” History. Mar. 1, 2021.

The post Congress Approves Women’s Right to Vote first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

When we left Katherine Naylor in my previous blog, she was 33 years old, a widow with two children and substantial property. In 17^th century Puritan New England, widows did not remain unmarried very long, especially if there was property involved. In Puritan culture, marriage was an equal partnership, but the husband was the undisputed head of the household. It was his responsibility to maintain an orderly house in good standing with the church and the magistrates. A disorderly house could affect the entire community.

Puritan culture also had an ambiance of watchfulness. Puritans believed that God predestined certain people for salvation and the rest for damnation. Men and women were granted church membership on the basis of their personal testimony of faith and their public behavior. The presumption was that church members were destined for salvation. But only God knew who would actually be saved. Thus, much emphasis was put on outward behavior which led to a culture of watchfulness. From ministers to housemaids, people watched each other to discern if all was well.

In 1663, Robert Nanny – Katherine’s first husband – died. Katherine continued to live in their house with her two children, Samuel & Mary. In 1666, Katherine married Edward Naylor who moved into the house and managed Katherine’s property and the property held in trust for her children. Katherine bore two more surviving children: Tabitha in 1667 and Lydia in 1668. On the surface, all appeared well. 

In 1671 Katherine Naylor petitioned the court for a divorce on the grounds that Edward Naylor failed in his role as head of household and did not model appropriate behavior. She charged he was cruel and violent; that she feared for her life. He did not care about religion and could not insure their children would be properly educated in the fear of God. He committed “whoredoms.” In addition, Katherine pled that she needed to secure the estate Robert Nanny left to her and their two children before it was used to satisfy Edward’s creditors.

Edward’s Whoredoms aka Promiscuous Sexual Activities

Evidence proved that Edward Naylor frequented Alice Thomas’s “bawdy house,” that he was the father of Mary Read’s illegitimate child, and that he carried on a public relationship with Mary More. Fornication and adultery were public concerns, because such activities undermined the family  and tainted the entire community with sin. There was also the issue of who would support illegitimate children.

Mary Read was a servant in the Naylor household when she became pregnant in 1668; Katherine Naylor was also pregnant at the time. In 1671 Mary Read testified that Edward Naylor fathered her child. Several family members and others gave evidence about Mary Read’s relationship with Edward Naylor. Mary’s family wanted the court to declare Naylor the father of Mary’s child so he would take financial responsibility.

The midwives who attended Mary testified that they interrogated Mary about the father while she was in labor. Puritans believed such an admission was proof of paternity, and the father would be required to provide financial support. Mary admitted Edward Naylor was the father but to please keep the information quiet. Presumably, she already had a financial arrangement with Naylor.

Naylor also had a somewhat public relationship with Mary More. The couple traveled together and passed themselves off as married. They met for liaisons in shops, taverns, and houses where they were easily seen. Five men and eight women testified about the relationship. Susanna Cross deposed that when Mary brought a man to her house in June 1670 and sat in his lap, she thought they were married, but then later she thought perhaps they weren’t.

Jan Anibal and William Godfrey heard a couple talking and laughing in Widow Thomas’s shop. They crept up the stairs, peeked into the room, and saw Naylor with Mary More.

And then there was Alice Thomas’s brothel near the Naylor house lot. Thomas appeared before the Suffolk County Court and convicted of sponsoring frequent secret entertainments of a lascivious nature and enabling persons to commit ‘carnal wickedness.’ The court sentenced Thomas to a fine, prison and a public humiliation that included being whipped at a cart’s tail.

Suffice to say, the charge of whoredom was proven.

Drunkenness & Violence

The issue of drunkenness was also the sign of a disorderly house. Servants testified that Naylor left the house short of provisions, and they lent Katherine money to buy bread, butter, and cheese. In addition, Naylor ordered that various items be kept locked away from his wife, saying she was wasteful. This prevented Katherine from doing her wifely duty and providing for her family.

Naylor was an abusive drunk. He whipped his children and kicked them down the stairs. He made his daughter stand in her shift outside in the cold. Elizabeth Haridine said that Naylor once lifted his one-year-old child out of her cradle and threw her on the floor.

Mary Jackson testified that one Sunday Naylor abused Katherine to the point that she was in bed for two days. Naylor tried to prevent his family and servants from praying on a Sabbath night, saying that he would not pray nor allow anyone else to do so.

Thus, Edward Naylor did not provide for his family either physically or spiritually, and his disrespect for Katherine’s effort to fulfill her wifely duties shattered the Puritan marriage ideal.

The Verdict

The court granted Katherine’s petition for divorce and allowed her to keep her home and inheritance from her first marriage. Naylor was tried in civil court and found guilty of cruelty and fornication. He was banished from Boston and the surrounding area. Naylor later petitioned the court saying the divorce and banishment left him an outlaw unable to pay his creditors. He was allowed to come back to Boston after providing a bond for good behavior. Less than two years later, he forfeited the bond because he “intruded” into Katherine’s company.

By removing Edward Naylor from Katherine’s family unit, the court restored an orderly household whose members were again part of an orderly community. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Katherine did not remarry.

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Sandra’s Books: Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

A Fair Puritan by E. Percy Moran c. 1897; Tavern Puritans by William Cullen Bryant & Sydney Howard Gay, 1881; New England 1920; Couple Making Love, 1646; Couple Courting by a Tree by Léon Bonnat, 1871; A Drunken Man Standing by Aleksandr Orlovsky, 1822; Early Puritans Going to Worship by George Henry Boughton, 1872. Melissa Ann Johnson. “The Talk of the Town: Women, Gossip, and Watchfulness in 17^th Century Massachusetts.” Dissertation. University of Michigan. 2019. Lauren J. Cook. “Katherine Nanny, Alias Naylor.” Historical Archeology. 32:1.15-19.

The post Katherine Naylor: Petition for Divorce Granted first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

While the manuscript for Sea Tigers & Merchants wends its way through the pre-publication process, I’m doing research for a prequel to the Salem Stories series. My new story begins in 17th century Salem about forty years before the infamous witch trials. The primary characters are Philip and Mary English whose descendent became Mary Hodges Derby, the woman featured in the opening pages of Ambition, Arrogance & Pride.

Teasing out personal details from 17th century Salem is difficult. As I looked for ways to develop Mary English’s personality, I came across a dissertation about women and gossip in 17th century.* One of the case studies featured Katherine Naylor’s divorce. The divorce is not completely unknown in the obscure annals of 17th century Boston history, but neither is it a dramatic event like the banishment of Anne Hutchinson who publicly questioned ministers and magistrates. Nevertheless, Naylor’s divorce affected the Puritan community by making one family’s private life very public.

Katherine’s Early Life

When six-year-old Katherine Wheelwright arrived in Boston with her family, the city’s population was less than 1,200. The migrants, led by John Winthrop, came to America to escape religious persecution in England, and to establish a model of church and state.

Katherine’s father, Reverend John Wheelwright, had married Anne Hutchinson’s sister-in-law Mary Hutchinson. A follower of the minister Rev. John Cotton, Anne became outspoken in her disagreement with what she called the ‘covenant of works.’ Cotton preached that a life of faith was enough for God to forgive a person’s sins. Other ministers emphasized good works as evidence of salvation. Anne Hutchinson established small groups to discuss Cotton’s concepts. Dissension and disagreement began to appear, first in the church and then in the government of Massachusetts Bay colony.

Rev. John Wheelwright and his family arrived in Boston in 1636 and quickly became associated with Cotton and Anne Hutchinson. Eventually, the controversy reached a tipping point. Rev. Wheelwright preached that the majority of civil and religious leaders in Massachusetts Bay followed the ‘covenant or works.’ The magistrates found his sermon seditious. In November 1637, church leaders and magistrates banished Rev. Wheelwright. Shortly thereafter, Anne Hutchinson was put on trial for disturbing the civil and religious peace of Massachusetts Bay.

Rev. Wheelwright took his family first to New Hampshire where he and his associates founded Exeter, and then to Wells, Maine.

Mrs. Robert Nanny

Robert Nanny arrived in Massachusetts Bay in 1635. He first settled in Dover, New Hampshire but by 1650 he lived in Boston. The record doesn’t indicate how Katherine Wheelwright met her husband or exactly when the couple married. Robert was seventeen years older than his bride.

Robert was a prosperous merchant with contacts in northern New England who provided the timber and cod fish he sent to the West Indies. He owned a plantation in Barbados. In Boston, Nanny owned land, and a dwelling house with a hall, kitchen, three chambers and two garrets. He also owned warehouses and a wharf on the north side of Boston.

Between 1653 and 1664, Katherine Nanny gave birth to eight children. Two of them, Samuel and Mary, lived past childhood.

It appears that some time in 1663, Robert Nanny’s health began to fail. In April, he willed his property in trust to Katherine for his children. If the children predeceased Katherine, the property would become hers. Five days after writing his will, Robert Nanny died.

Widow Katherine Nanny Remarries

In Puritan society, widows could own property and sign contracts, but they could only keep one-third of their property. Thus, one-third of Robert Nanny’s property remained with Katherine for the rest of her life. The remaining two-thirds were in trust for his children.

Widow Katherine was 33 years old and in possession of property valued at £560. No doubt, she had household servants. It would seem she had enough resources to remain single. Yet the basis of Puritan society was the family unit with a male head-of-household. So, whether from social pressure or personal preference, Katherine married a fur trader named Edward Naylor who moved into the house Katherine inherited from her first husband, and managed her property.

As matters turned out, Naylor was a less than faithful husband. He was a drunkard and patron of bawdy houses who abused his wife and children. He owed £500 to his creditors.

Katherine never said a word against her husband until she filed for divorce. But the women in her circle — servants, neighbors, and friends — testified that Edward Naylor failed to fulfill his duties as a husband. Details about the divorce in my next blog.

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Sandra’s Books: Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources:

*Melissa Ann Johnson. “The Talk of the Town: Women, Gossip, and Watchfulness in 17^th Century Massachusetts.” Dissertation. University of Michigan. 2019.

New England Woman 1917; Boston by Nathaniel Dearborn; Reverend John Wheelwright by Unknown; Puritan Engravings 1646. Lauren J. Cook. “Katherine Nanny, Alias Naylor.” Historical Archeology. 32:1.15-19.

The post Katherine Wheelwright Nanny Naylor & Puritan Dissension first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

The month of March has eleven awareness celebrations. Some may seem slightly silly, like National Celery Month, established in 2015; others, like Irish American Heritage Month established in 1995, celebrate American diversity.*

The designation I find most meaningful is WOMEN’S HISTORY MONTH.

I ‘m dating myself when I share that when I was growing up, the only women mentioned in my history classes were Betsey Ross, credited with sewing the first American flag; the abolitionist Grimke Sisters; and Harriet Tubman and her work with the Underground Railroad. Over in English class, there were the Bronte sisters; Emily Dickenson; and George Eliot. And that was about it. No woman ran for president. No woman became an astronaut.

There are, of course, thousands of women who made a significant impact on all aspects of modern life, but they were largely unknown and invisible. Today, thanks in large part to Women’s History Month, women’s contributions are recognized as part of the tapestry of modern life.

In 1978 educators in Santa Rosa, California built a Women’s History Week of celebrations around International Women’s Day on March 8. Two years later, President Jimmy Carter issued a presidential proclamation declaring March 2-8 as Women’s History Week. In 1987 Congress designated the entire month of March as Women’s History Month.

Women’s Colors

Since the early 20th century, three colors have been associated with women’s history.

Green: the color representing hope, new beginnings, and growth
Purple: the color representing justice, dignity, and visionary thinking
White: the color of purity and equality.

In the early twentieth century when opponents of women’s right to vote portrayed suffragists as immoral, advocates embraced the color white. White emphasized the purity of women’s cause, and the sight of women wearing white while marching through the streets drew people’s attention.

Women’s History Profile: Jeannette Rankin

In 1914 Montana granted women the right to vote. Three years later, Jeannette Rankin (1880-1973) became the first woman elected to Congress. It would be another four years before the 19th Amendment to the Constitution granted all American women the right to vote. Rankin was a Republican and ran on the platform of woman suffrage and social welfare reform. In 1917, as the United States drew closer to entering what became known as World War I, Rankin pledged that she would not vote for American involvement.

Imagine the consternation in Congress when Rankin arrived to take her seat. Congress debated for a month before seating the woman elected in 1916. She was sworn in on April 2, 1917. [At that time, elections occurred in November, but the change in government occurred the following March.]

As Rankin took her seat in Congress, President Woodrow Wilson addressed Congress to urge a declaration of war against Germany and her allies. Rankin told her colleagues: “I want to stand by my country, but I cannot vote for war.” The vote took place three days later. The resolution for a declaration of war passed 373 to 50. Male members of Congress cast forty-nine of the negative votes. As concerns about war swept the country, nay sayers were attacked. The New York Times commented, “Miss Rankin’s vote is regarded, not as that of a pacifist, but rather as one dictated by the inherent abhorrence of women for war.”

As the year 1917 moved forward, Rankin led an effort to create a Committee of Woman Suffrage in Congress and worked to create a constitutional amendment extending suffrage to women across the country. The effort died in the Senate.

At the end of her term, Rankin returned to Montana and was not re-elected. In 1940, Rankin was elected to a second term in Congress. In December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. Once again, Rankin cast her vote against a declaration of war.

Women’s History Profile: Anna May Wong

Rankin’s contemporary Anna May Wong (1905-1961) made her screen debut in The Red Lantern in the uncredited role of “Lantern Bearer.” By 1924, she was an international star and fashion icon. She was also a victim of American racism, particularly anti-Chinese sentiment. Undeterred, Wong continued her career. In 1951 she led the cast of television’s The Gallery of Madam Liu-Tsong. She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. In 2022 the U.S. Mint issued the Anna May Wong Quarter, the fifth quarter in the American Women Quarters Program.

The video below contains clips of Anna May Wong’s work (9 minutes)

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*Full list of March monthly celebrations: Music in our Schools Month; National Celery Month; Craft Month; Frozen Food Month; Irish American Heritage Month; National Nutrition Month; Peanut Month; Red Cross Month; Social Workers Month; Women’s History Month

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Equal Suffrage Is the Birthright of Women, 1910 Postcard; Anna May Wong; 1912 New York City Suffragist Parade; 1914 Montana Suffragists by Suffrage Daily News; Jeannette Rankin. “On This Day: Jeannette Rankin’s History-Making Moment.” National Constitution Center. April 2, 2023; Kerri Lee Alexander. “Anna May Wong.” National Women’s History Museum; Perri Ormont Blumbert. “Women’s History Month Colors.” Today. Feb 7, 2023.

Sandra’s Books: Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

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There was an old woman who rode on a broom,
With a heigh, gee-ho, gee-humble;
And she took her old cat behind for a groom,
With a bumble, bumble, bumble. — From Gems from Mother Goose

When Gems from Mother Goose came out in 1899, the standard witch description depicted an older woman (often with green tinted skin) who wore a black pointed hat, had a familiar (most often a black cat) and flew on a magical broom. Most folks thought witches were evil. How did this image take our imaginations?

Conical Hats

Illustrations usually show witches wearing conical hats. The hats have no magical powers, however in the 15th and 16th centuries conical hats were fashionable in the upper classes. And, since most stories about witches appear at this time, the hat became a sort of fashion statement of Witchery.

Black Cats & Other Familiars

A familiar functions as an individual witch’s magical helper. The witch compensates her helpers with food and a place to live. Besides cats, familiars might be dogs, toads, birds, spiders, flies, bees, rats, mice, cows, ferrets, rabbits, bears, and according to at least one source, snails.

However, in early modern Europe, witch hunters most often associated witches with black cats. Cats could see in the dark and blend into the shadows. Some thought a witch could change her shape into that of a black cat. Regardless, by the 20th century black cats were objects of superstition and thought to bring bad luck, with or without supernatural powers.

Besoms & Brooms

If you refer back to the first illustration, you’ll notice that the broom the old woman rides is more correctly a besom, such as the one pictured here which is the prototype for modern brooms.

The word besom comes from the Old English, besma, which became besom, which became broom. Besoms have been used since ancient times to cleanse the home from evil spirits as well as dirt. They were often used in wedding ceremonies in which the couple clasped hands and jumped over the besom as a symbol of their commitment to each other and their new home. The broom’s handle held masculine energies while the bristles were feminine. In general, the broom was associated with women as a symbol of domesticity.

The association of witches and brooms could be due to a pagan fertility ritual known as the Broomstick Dance. Farmers would leap and dance astride poles, pitchforks or brooms in the light of a full moon to encourage their crops to grow.

Incidentally, 15th and 16th century illustrations show witches riding stools, cupboards, wardrobes and cooking forks as well as brooms.

Witch’s Brews

Witches have a reputation for whipping up their spells and potions in a cauldron. During the 15th and 16th centuries, most households used at least one cauldron for cooking. Today, not so much, though modern witches may use a cauldron to prepare ingredients for spells.

Cauldrons do have a symbolic meaning. They symbolize both the Goddess and her womb and also can be used to represent the elements of fire and water.

It is thought that during the Middle Ages, brews, ointments, and salves were made by people later accused of witchcraft. Mixtures that included Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Mandragora officinarum (mandrake) and Datura stramonium (jimsonweed). The resulting mixture had hallucinogenic properties. Ingestion of the chemicals by eating the plants or drinking their extracts caused severe abdominal discomfort. However, further observations revealed that the mixture could be absorbed through sweat glands in the armpit or via the mucous membranes in the rectal or vaginal areas of the body. And, it appears that broomsticks were a perfect means of applying the mixture to these areas of the body. When the hallucinations took effect, the accused individual reported the sensation of flying.

Flying

In 1324 Lady Alice Kyteler, an Irish widow, was tried for sorcery and heresy. Witnesses reported they discovered ‘a pipe of ointment wherewith she greased a staff upon which she abled and galloped thru thick and thin.’

The first accused witch who confessed to riding a besom was a priest for the Saint-Germain-en Laye who was arrested in 1453, confessed under torture and was imprisoned for life.

Martin le Franc published the first illustrations of witches flying on brooms in his Le Champion des Dames. The women wore the type of headscarves worn by Waldensians, a Christian sect branded as heretics by the Catholic Church.

Modern Halloween Witchery

Today, some witches, like Snow White’s stepmother, are depicted as evil witches, however most, for example Cassie Nightingale in the Good Witch on the Hallmark Channel, have a more benevolent image. In contemporary fiction witches use their powers for good, and in illustrations they take on the whimsical good will associated with happy childhood memories. The witch above with her greenish skin, besom and conical has a playful aspect.

Have a Safe & Happy Halloween!

Illustrations

Gems from Mother Goose, 1899.

WikiWitch Symbol.

Line Drawing of Besom Broom by Pearson Scott Foresman.

Photo by Author.

Drawing of Witch by Martin Le Franc. 1541.

Witch’s Cauldron from webcomic Pepper&Carrot by David Revoy.

By Anton Kandaurov. 1899.

By Santiago Camado.

Gems from Mother Goose. 1899

Sarah Coughlin. “Cauldrons, Broomsticks & Pointed Hats.” Refinery. Oct. 29, 2019.

Irynas. Unfamiliar Familiars. Folklore & Public Culture. Dec. 2, 2021.

David Kroll. “Original of Witches Riding Broomsticks.” Forbes. Oct. 31, 2017.

Sarah Pruitt. “Why Do Witches Ride Brooms?” History. Aug. 9, 2023.

The post HALLOWEEN TALES OF WITCHES & BROOMS first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Among the sites visitors to Zurich are most likely to visit, Fraumünster, with its clock, tower stands tall. Many sightseers are church tourists who take a moment to visit churches famous for their architecture, stained glass, or as the site of famous historical events. Others come to Fraumünster specifically to view the painted glass windows created by Marc Chagall, and then leave. Or, they come to view the Chagall windows and remain to take in other famous sites in Fraumünster.

Fraumünster clerks charge visitors five Swiss francs to enter their domain, and supplies them with a very good recorded tour. The fee of five Swiss francs was my first interesting experience at Fraumünster. The Swiss don’t use the euro. In most places, patrons can pay in euros, but any change they receive will be in Swiss francs. Fraumünster does not accept euros. If a visitor does not have Swiss francs, the clerk accepts credit cards. Five Swiss francs is a little over five U.S. dollars, and the art and history at Fraumünster are worth the fee.

Fraumünster was once part of Fraumünster Abbey founded in A. D. 853. In 1272, the bones of the first two abbesses, Hildegard and Berta, were placed in the south wall of the church transept. About 1300, someone painted a fresco above their resting place. Someone painted over the original mural which was uncovered in 1847. Franz Hegi made a watercolor copy of the original in 2006.

The mural depicts the legends connected with the Fraumünster’s founding. If they seem a bit fanciful, remember the founding happened a very long time ago during the famous once upon a time . . .

Saints Felix & Regula

The left side of the mural tells the story of Felix and Regula. A procession moves from Grossmünster on the left edge of the picture to Fraumünster. Bishops and the king carry two coffins containing the bones of Saints Felix and Regula. 

During the Third Century, Felix and his sister Regula were members of the Theban Legion. They had converted to Christianity and refused to sacrifice to the Roman Emperor Maximian. The emperor ordered them execution for treason. Felix and Regula fled with their servant Experantius, and reached Zurich where they were caught. In A. D. 286, the three fugitives were beheaded. But a curious thing happened. The three headless corpses stood, picked up their heads, walked forty paces uphill, prayed, and lay down on the spot that would become Grossmünster.

An alternative version of the story says that the Christian general Mauritius sent Felix, Regula, and their companions to wander to new places and serve God. When they arrived at the place where the river Limit left the lake, the wanderers set up their camp, and spent their days fasting, keeping vigils, and praying.

When Emperor Maximian heard of their activities, he sent Decius to force them to worship Roman gods. At first Decius could not find Felix and the others because God made them invisible. So, they asked God to make them visible to their enemies so they could enjoy being martyred and the happiness that would follow. Decius ordered the future saints to pray to the Roman gods. Felix, Regula and the others refused. Then the tortures began.

Stories of early Christian saints describe horrendous physical trials they experienced before achieving martyrdom. In this case, Decius ordered his men to  attach the dissenters to red-hot iron wheels that were then plunged into boiling pitch. The Christians kept praying to God, so Decius made them drink molten lead. But still they persisted.

Finally a shining cloud appeared, and a voice promised that the dissenters would be received in heaven as saints. Decius ordered Felix, Regula, Experantius, and presumably their companions to be beheaded. A choir of angels and saints repeated the promise of their reception in heaven. Then, Felix, Regula and Experantius picked up their heads from the site of their execution by the banks of the Limit river, and carried them forty paces up the hill where the saints lay down. The site became a shrine of sorts where the blind and the lame reported miraculous cures.

Many years later, Emperor Charlemagne was hunting a white stag. The hunters followed the stag to the site, where their dogs kneeled. The men returned to Charlemagne to tell their tale, and he followed them back to the site. When Charlemagne’s horse fell to its knees, the emperor knew he was in a holy spot. Immediately, he asked God what to do. Two hermits came to the king, and told him about the martyrs.

Charlemagne moved into a castle above Zurich and ordered his men to find the holy remains. When the remains were unearthed, they were elevated, canonized, and placed in tombs. Charlemagne moved the remains of Felix and Regula across the river to Fraumünster Abbey (see below). He took Exuperantius’s remains back to Aachen with him.

In A. D. 760, Grossmünster was complete. Charlemagne ordered the remains of Saints Felix & Regula returned to Grossmünster. Interestingly, Charlemagne did not return St Exuperantius’s remains, but replaced them with remains from a certain St. Placidus.

Princesses Hildegard & Bertha

On the right side of the mural, the viewer sees a white stag with shining antlers leading the Princesses Hildegard and Berta, daughters of King Louis the German, from Balder Castle on the Albis river into Zurich to the spot where Fraumünster Abbey was built.

The legend explains that God sent the stag to the sisters to lead them to a meadow between the lake and the river where there was a chapel. After the princesses prayed, the stag accompanied the them back to their castle. This continued for some time until someone told the king that his daughters left castle at night, but no one knew where they went or what they did. After the king observed their activity, he asked them about their behavior. The young women replied they had taken a vow of chastity and did not want to live in the world. Where, then, would they choose to live? At the site where the river met the lake. And so, Louis built his daughters an abbey with a dedicated abbess, a space where noble women could join them, and room for seven canons. Princess Hildegard became the first abbess (853-856) and her sister Bertha, the second (857-877).

Illustrations

Fraumünster Wall Painting by Roland zh.

Jesus facing Felix, Regula, and Experantius, 1506.

Emperor Charlemagne by Albert Dürer.

King Louis II the German.

Fraumünster Abbey in 1757.

All Other Photos by Author.

Joan A Holladay. “The Competition for Saints in Medieval Zurich.” Gesta. Vol. 43. No. 1. 2004. Pp 41-59.

The post Fraumünster Church in Zurich first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

A quick research dive introduced to Mary Burke who kept a tavern in Saugus, Massachusetts. The advertisement she placed in the Columbian Centinel in April 1792 reminded customers that her house will be open every day in the week except the Sabbath…Larder will be consistently furnished with the choicest and most suitable provisions – her cellar with liquors of the best quality – her house with the best attendants she can procure – her stable with the best hay & Provender – the favor of her guests studied to be gained and always gratefully acknowledge.

Fresh Pond is 6 miles from Boston, the roads good & improving; the Pond well stored with fish, boats and all necessary fishing apparatus for ladies and gentlemen provided. Adjacent country furnishes game – and the walks in its vicinity are rurally agreeable.

Mary’s tavern was far enough out of Boston to be a destination for a spring or summer picnic. During the winter months, she accommodated sleighing parties. In addition, a tavern outside the city was the perfect place for courting couples to meet for dinner. Town watch patrols attempted to insure young men and women were not out walking together after 10:00 p.m., which seems to imply inappropriate behavior was less likely earlier in the evening.

The respectability of Mary Burke’s tavern and other establishments managed by women may be implied by the above 1778 illustration of the “Pretty Bar-Maid.” The young woman is surrounded by male admirers, but her clothing does not necessarily imply she sold more than alcoholic spirits.

I did my quick investigation of taverns so that one of my characters could meet a winsome lass who would be an inappropriate marriage partner, but a contender for his true affection. A sailor fresh in from the sea doubtless stopped at a wharf side tavern. Where better to meet a young woman with sparkling eyes?

The American Tavern

Taverns have a long history in America. The first tavern opened in Boston on March 4, 1634. Since the Puritans arrived in 1630, I suspect spirits were unofficially available from the time they set up the town. The illustration to the right depicts a tavern at the end of Long Wharf in Boston.

Taverns were a community resource. Workmen gathered in the mornings for a formal breakfast at 9:00. After 12:00, people came in for early card games and other entertainment before dinner was served at 2:00. Supper came out at 7:00.

Churchgoers came out of their unheated meeting house to get warm by the roaring fire at the tavern next door. Taverns hosted public meetings, court sessions, and provided a place to conduct business, read the newspapers, and catch up with news and gossip.

One of the most interesting aspects about taverns is that though the magistrates granted the business licenses to men, they expected the tavern would be run by a woman, usually the applicant’s wife or daughter.

Those gentlemen who please to favor me with their custom may depend upon genteel accommodations, and the very best entertainment. — Christiana Campbell, Virginia Gazette.

More on tavern entertainments and decor in the next installment.

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Illustrations

The Pretty Bar-Maid, 1778.

Castle Tavern, Later George Tavern, at the end of Long Wharf, Boston.

Interior of Tavern by Jan August Hendrick Leys, 1844.

Steven Struzinski. “The Tavern in Colonial America.” The Gettysburg Journal. 2002.

Sarah Hand Meacham. “Keeping the Trade: The Persistence of Tavern-keeping among Middling Women in Colonial Virginia.” Early American Studies, Spring 2005. Vol 3, No 1. Pp 140-163

The post 18th Century Taverns for Business & Pleasure first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.