Recently I found myself practicing breathing exercises while my dentist injected numbing medication into my gums. Somehow I had managed to acquire a cavity at the back edge of an existing crown. The crown had to be removed, the cavity treated, and a new crown acquired. And, of course, the afflicted tooth was a the very back of my mouth. Ouch!

Attempting to distract myself, I thought about the characters in my Salem Stories series. Eighteenth century America did not have medication to numb gums, or the ability to save a tooth by creating a crown. So what, I wondered, did Americans do in the 1790s? Was it a case of strong liquor, pliers, and missing teeth?

A few days after completing my treatment, my calendar informed me that February 22 was George Washington’s birthday. Washington is famous for many things, among them his false teeth which were not, in fact, made of wood. Gilbert Stuart’s 1796 portrait of Washington on the one dollar bill portrays a man who, in my opinion, clearly did not enjoy moving his mouth. Washington’s stature as commander of the American revolutionary army and the first president of the new United States has made his dental struggles a matter of surprising interest. Washington’s dentures were not unique, but they were well-documented.

The “Gentility” of Straight White Teeth

During the 1720s a group of French practitioners created a profession of dentistry, elevating treatment from simply pulling teeth to one that treated diseases of the teeth and gums, and also created false teeth. As the century progressed, dentists established themselves in North America. False teeth were too expensive for most people, but for George Washington and others of his status, false teeth were important to preserve their social standing.

Among genteel social circles, the ideal was clean well-arranged white teeth the color of ivory surrounded by pink gums. Tooth loss was considered an indication of immorality. Tooth decay leading to tooth loss was associated with a lack of personal discipline. The afflicted individual might have lost his teeth due to gluttony, poor dental hygiene, excessive smoking or use of chewing tobacco, or even a case of syphilis. The latter was treated with mercury which caused teeth to decay.

Tooth loss also made eating and speaking difficult, problems false teeth did not solve. Though George Washington wore his dentures through meals and for the toasts following the meals, many sets of false teeth were designed to be removed while eating — discreetly, of course. In President Washington’s case, by the time he became president, he only had one remaining tooth in his head.

Washington’s Dentures

As a young man, Washington suffered from illnesses, including small pox and malaria. Both could be treated with various forms of mercury which could cause excessive salivation, gum inflammation, and loosening teeth.

At the age of 24, Washington recorded that he had paid 5 shillings to a Doctor Watson who removed one of his teeth. Washington kept several of his pulled teeth for use in his dentures. On at least one occasion, according to Washington’s accounts, he purchased teeth from his slaves. At a time when a Dr. Le Mayeur advertised good front teeth for two guineas each, Washington paid one or more slaves 122 shillings for a total of nine teeth.

When Washington became president in 1789, Dr. John Greenwood, a New York dentist, created state of the art dentures for the new national leader. The “teeth” were carved out of hippopotamus ivory and used gold wire springs and brass screws that held human teeth. Hippopotamus ivory teeth were heavier than other dental substitutes and required braces on the upper portion to compensate for the weight. They were also expensive.

In 1795 Washington paid Greenwood $60 for a pair of dentures. [$1468.65 in today’s dollars]. In comparison, he paid $25 dollars for a pair of silver-plated candlesticks [$611 today].

Washington’s first set of dentures used hippopotamus ivory on the base and upper row with eight human teeth on the bottom. The teeth were fastened with gold pivots and secured in the mouth with springs. Hippopotamus ivory is hard and doesn’t yellow with age which makes it a good substitute for teeth, however, the hardness of the teeth makes it very uncomfortable.

In addition to hippopotamus ivory, dentures could also be made elephant ivory, cow and horse teeth, lead tin alloy, copper alloy, silver alloy, and human teeth. Ivory dentures stained easily and needed sealing with wax and chalk. 

As it happens, ivory and bone have thin hairline cracks. Washington had a particular fondness for Madeira wine, a dark red liquid. Over time, the wine darkened the teeth; the cracks became darker than the rest of the teeth replacements, and the fine lines made the teeth look wood. Thus, a myth was born.

False teeth were better than no teeth, but they caused pain and facial disfigurement. Washington complained that even Greenwood’s expertly crafted dentures were uncomfortable and made his lips bulge out. They also made speaking difficult which may be why Washington was not a man who indulged in small talk.

There’s nothing like researching 18th century dentistry to make me appreciate the dental care I’ve received over the years. I’m not ecstatic about going to the dentist, but (technically) I do have my own teeth. ?

If you’re interested in how dentures were made, this video illustrates the process. Clearly, there wasn’t much done to insure a good fit.

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Illustrations & A Few Sources

George Washington Lithograph; George Washington by John Trumbull, 1780; George Washington by Gilbert Stuart Williamson; Dentist John Greenwood. Larry E. Davis. “Unregulated potions still cause mercury poisoning.” Western Journal of Medicine. 2000 Jul. 173(1):19; Jennifer Van Horn. “George Washington’s Dentures.” Early American Studies. Vol. 14, No. 1. Winter 2016 2-47. Colin Schultz. “George Washington Didn’t Have Wooden Teeth.” Smithsonian Magazine. Nov. 7, 2014. False Teeth. Mount Vernon Library. The Trouble With Teeth. Mount Vernon Library.

Sandra’s Books: Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

The post George Washington’s Teeth first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Washington died in 1799. In 1800 Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, became the third president of the United States. With the Democratic-Republicans in office, there would be no monument.

Washington Monument: Phase 1

Many Americans wanted a permanent remembrance, and in 1833 private citizens formed the Washington National Monument Society. The winning concept wasn’t a general on horseback or a statesman. It was an obelisk, a structure first built in Egypt. Supporters thought an obelisk conveyed a sense of timelessness, as well as respect and gratitude for our first national leader.

It was supposed to be a 600-foot obelisk surrounded by thirty 100-foot columns. Construction began in 1848. Six years later, the marble obelisk reached a height of 156 feet and stopped. The Monument Society was bankrupt. With the nation on the verge of civil war, a monument to George Washington, a man who evoked national unity, didn’t seem very important.

A Public Reading: Washington’s Farewell Address

More than a monument, people needed a sense of Washington himself. In 1862, citizens in Philadelphia petitioned Congress to read Washington’s Farewell Address to a joint session of Congress on Washington’s birthday. They thought a public reading would boost morale during a time of civil war. As Senators filed into the House chamber, they passed captured Confederate battle flags, a sight that undoubtedly did boost their morale.

Among the subjects Washington addressed was the issue of “party,” or “factionalism” as it existed in 1797. Perhaps Philadelphians sought to make a point.

Washington observed that “the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise people to discourage and restrain it. It serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influences and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another.” [Washington’s Farewell Address. 23, 24]

The custom of reading Washington’s Farewell Address on Presidents’ Day continues, though the reading isn’t well-attended any more and no longer lifts national morale.

Washington Monument: Phase 2

In 1876 the civil war was over, the transcontinental railroad completed, and business was booming. Congress decided to complete Washington’s Monument and brought in the Army Corps of Engineers to do the job. Gone were the surrounding columns and decorative touches. The monument would be a stark obelisk, less expensive and quicker to build. In 1884 the 3300 pound capstone with an aluminum apex just above it completed the construction of what has become a national symbol.

The Washington Monument is 554 feet tall. It was the tallest structure in the world until 1889 and is still the world’s tallest obelisk.

The monument is an impressive piece of architecture. Thomas Jefferson would have been appalled to realize this edifice is named for a mere mortal, no matter how much service he gave to his country. On the other hand, Jefferson might have felt differently if he’d known about the Jefferson Memorial dedicated in 1943.

In our present political climate, George Washington’s 18th century observations still make sense:

“Associate with men of good quality if you esteem your own reputation; for it is better to be alone than in bad company.”

“Government is not reason; it is not eloquence; it is force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant, and a fearful master.”

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Illustrations from Wikimedia Commons.

George Washington by Gilbert Stuart, 1797. Public Domain.

Washington Monument 1860. No Copyright Restriction.

Washington Monument Setting the Capstone. Public Domain.

Washington Monument by Raul654. Creative Commons Attribution.

Presidents’ Day. History. 2010.

Washington Monument. National Park Service.

Washington’s Farewell Address. United States Senate.

Allison Terry. “Presidents Day 2013: How a Senate Tradition keeps George Washington’s Words Alive. Christian Science Monitor. Feb. 18, 2013.

The post WASHINGTON’S MONUMENT first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

This past Friday, January 20, Donald Trump became the 45th President of the United States. The election was close. The popular vote went to Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton, but the Electoral Vote – the vote that actually elects the president went to Donald Trump.

Donald Trump — Republican — 304 Electoral Votes — 62,980,160 Popular Vote,  45.9% Pop. Vote
Hillary Clinton — Democrat — 227 Electoral Votes — 65,845,063 Popular Vote,  48% Pop. Vote

Not only was the election close, but many Americans find it impossible to comprehend how the candidate with a majority of the popular vote could possibly lose the presidential election.

So where did the Electoral College come from?

The ELECTORAL COLLEGE is the result of substantial debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 — a time of very different sensibilities. Delegates couldn’t envision of time when the United States would have either political parties or universal voting rights. Most states restricted the vote to those citizens who held property.

Everyone at the Constitutional Convention assumed George Washington would be the first president – as indeed he was. Washington was the only name most Americans knew. The delegates worried that after Washington, people wouldn’t know of viable candidates outside of their own state. They thought of the Electors as a special type of Congress named by each state. A state’s number of Electors would be determined by the total number of senators and representatives elected by each state. This would allow each state’s population to be a factor.

Current Electoral College Map

Originally, the Elector could vote for any two candidates as long as one was not from their home state. The man with the most votes would be president. The first runner-up would be vice-president. If no one held a winning majority, the election would go into the House of Representatives (the only body directly elected by the voters). Each state would have one vote. The Founders expected the Electoral College to function more as a nominating body with the House making the actual selection of president.

TODAY each political party within a state presents a slate of Electors. When voters cast their ballots for President, they also elect the Electors.* The Electors aren’t required to vote according to a state’s popular vote, but they usually do.

The tension between the numbers in the voting population and the total number of a state’s congressional delegation is meant to prevent more populous states from dominating smaller states.

CONTROVERISAL ELECTIONS

The Trump-Clinton Election is the most recent in a long line of controversial, closely-fought elections. I count eight such elections, though others might point to more or less. These elections demonstrate the changing electorate as Americans debate the future of the nation. I propose to look at four this week and four next week.

1796 ELECTION

George Washington served two terms as president, which he thought was enough for any man. Since Washington took office in 1790, factions had developed in the electorate. Americans didn’t have formal political parties, but they were beginning to coalesce around key political figures.

Since it wasn’t appropriate then for candidates to openly campaign, their friends and allies did the job. Each state chose Electors in a different way and Electors could vote how they wished – even for candidates of opposing “parties.” Candidates John Adams and Thomas Jefferson had widely differing views on almost everything and could hardly stand each other.

John Adams — Federalist — 71 Electoral Votes, 51.1%
Thomas Jefferson — Democratic-Republican — 68 Electoral Votes 48.9%
Charles Pinckney — Federalist — 59 Electoral Votes
Aaron Burr — Democratic-Republican — 30 Electoral Votes

1800 ELECTION – THE REVOLUTION OF 1800

The Founders thought that once a candidate was elected to office, everyone would put aside their differences in favor of the “greater good.” This proved not to be the case. By 1800 Federalists and Democratic-Republicans were clearly in opposition. The Federalist party also split between Adams and Alexander Hamilton.
The campaign became decidedly uncivil. Federalists attacked Jefferson as a godless supporter of the French Revolution who would unleash bloody terror on the country. Democratic-Republicans charged Adams was a fool and a tyrant who wanted people to call him “Your Excellency.”

Thomas Jefferson — Democratic-Republican — 73 Electoral Votes
Aaron Burr — Democratic-Republican — 73 Electoral Votes
John Adams — Federalist — 65 Electoral Votes
Charles Pinckney — Federalist — 64 Electoral Votes

ELECTORAL VOTE TIED – THE HOUSE VOTES

Jefferson and Burr tied at 73 Electoral Votes each which threw the election into the Federalist controlled House of Representatives. This presents an interesting situation since the tied vote was between Democratic-Republicans. Thirty-five ballots were cast without result. Finally Alexander Hamilton convinced a few delegations who refused to vote for a Democratic-Republican to turn in blank ballots. This allowed the victory to go to Jefferson. Burr was enraged. In 1804 Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.

1804 Burr-Hamilton Duel

1824 ELECTION – THE CORRUPT BARGAIN

Politics changed after 1800. More people had voting rights. The 12th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1804. This required that the president and vice-president be from the same political party. It also stipulated that when an election was thrown into the House of Representatives, only the top three candidates would be considered.

There were four candidates in 1824. John Quincy Adams, son of the second president, would become the last president to wear knee-breeches. Adams’ primary rival was Andrew Jackson, known as the victor at the Battle of New Orleans. There were two other candidates: William Crawford and Henry Clay.

Andrew Jackson — Democratic-Republican — 99 Electoral Votes, 37.9% — 151,271 Popular Votes 41.3%

John Quincy Adams — Democratic-Republican — 84 Electoral Votes, 37.9% — 113,122 Popular Votes, 30.9%

William Crawford — Democratic-Republican — 41 Electoral Votes, 15.7% — 40,856 Popular Votes, 11.2%

Henry Clay — Democratic-Republican — 37 Electoral Votes, 14.2% — 47,531 Popular Votes, 13%

Jackson had a majority of Electoral Votes and popular votes, but his percentage of Electoral Votes tied with those of John Quincy Adams. The election went to the House of Representatives. Henry Clay was eliminated and told his supporters to give their votes to John Quincy Adams. Jackson supporters believed Clay had stolen Jackson’s election. Their suspicions were confirmed when Adams named Clay as his Secretary of State.

1828 ELECTION

Jackson supporters immediately began their campaign for the 1828 election. Campaign Manager Martin van Buren put together a political coalition that held until 1860. Jackson’s party became the Democratic Party on a platform of States Rights and Popular Democracy.

Jackson supporters made much of their candidate’s nickname – Old Hickory. Jackson, they said, was tough as hickory wood. Supporters put up hickory poles. They distributed hickory toothpicks and held barbecues fired by hickory chips. They attacked Adams for his legalism, for marrying a foreign-born wife, and spread the rumor that during his diplomatic career Adams procured American virgins for the Russian czar.

Adams’ supporters accused Jackson of murders, personal violence, and living with his wife before her divorce was final.

Andrew Jackson — Democratic — 178 Electoral Votes, 68.2% — 642,553 Popular Votes, 56.1%
John Quincy Adams — National-Republican — 83 Electoral Votes, 31.8% — 500,897 Popular Votes, 43.6%

Between 1796 and 1828 the United States moved from a largely agrarian economy to one of booming commerce and expansion. The electorate expanded to include most white males. The physical geography of the country grew from a boundary at the Mississippi River to one that extended that reached westward into the Northwest Territories. An increasing number of Americans concluded that slavery was not compatible with the concept that “all men are created equal.” Elections became more volatile. The 1860 presidential election would trigger what some historians call the Second American Revolution.

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*Nebraska and Maine have a proportional distribution of Electors.

Images from Wikimedia Commons:

George Washington by Edward Savage. U.S. Public Domain

Electoral College Map for 2012, 2016, and 2020. U.S. Public Domain

John Adams by John Trumbull. U.S. Public Domain

Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale. U.S. Public Domain

Aaron Burr Drawing. U.S. Public Domain

John Quincy Adams by George Peter Alexander Healy. U.S. Public Domain

Andrew Jackson by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl. U.S. Public Domain

Data Taken From:

American Presidency Project.
The Miller Center.
U.S. Electoral College 

The post The Electoral College & Historic Controversy first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Whew!  There were more holidays last week than during the official “Holiday Season.”  Funny word “holiday.”  It’s a contraction of Holy Days.  Most folks don’t think of holidays as religious – we think of free time, decorations, special food, gifts, and shopping.  But, for those so inclined, there is opportunity for contemplation and purification.

CHINESE NEW YEAR – February 10

Those of you who read last week’s blog (and if you did not, why not) know last Sunday marked CHINESE NEW YEAR and the inauguration of the Year of the Snake.  Symbols for wealth and auspicious colors abound.  Golden tangerines and red money envelopes being in high favor.

KUMBH MELA – January 14-March 10

The Hindu festival of KUMBH MELA had several events during the week.  The festival began on January 14 and concludes March 10.  Every twelve years when the moon and planet Jupiter are aligned, pilgrims journey to the convergence of the Ganges, Yamuna, and (mythical) Sarasvati Rivers. Those who bathe at the rivers’ convergence are cleansed of their sins and receive blessings that can extend through several generations.  Eighty million pilgrims are expected at Allahabad to participate in ritual bathing.  So many people in such a small area inevitably leads to chaos.  Already this year, thirty-six people died at a stampede at the Allahabad railway station platform 6.

Three special days of the Kumbh Mela occurred last week.  The Mauni Amavasya Snan on Sunday, the Basant Panchami Snan on Friday, and the Basant Panchami Snan today.

 MARDI GRAS – February 12

February 12 – MARDI GRAS – CARNIVAL – one last chance to let things roll before the austerity of Lent.  The word itself is French for “Fat Tuesday.”  Dance, Sing, Eat, Drink, Parade, Mask.  Enjoy all the world has to offer.

And then, confess.  Because it is also Shrove Tuesday.  The last day for ritual Christians to purify themselves for the austerities of Lent.

 ASH WEDNESDAY February 13

The date for ASH WEDNESDAY is calculated as forty days before Easter.  Unlike consistent Christmas, Easter is set by the lunar calendar and moves.  On Ash Wednesday, many Christians have a priest place ashes on their heads in the sign of a cross.  While doing so, the priest intones, “From dust you are made and to dust you shall return.”  A sobering thought, especially for those still a bit ill from Mardi Gras.

 VALENTINE’S DAY –  February 14

Then there is the dreaded date of February 14^th – VALENTINE’S DAY.  One might wonder how a day originally commemorated by the Church to honor St. Valentine’s martyrdom became the day of Cupid’s arrow.  I suppose it’s about selfless love.  If you can equate the pressure for candy, flowers, and cards with love.  And, for some folks, the question of whether it might be time to take down the Christmas tree.  [See Kristen Lamb’s Blog http://warriorwriters.wordpress.com/2013/02/14/what-to-do-when-your-christmas-tree-wants-a-bass-boat/ ]

 VASANT PANCHAMI –  February 15

And now for something completely different VASANT PANCHAMI – a Hindu festival to salute spring’s arrival.  My favorite goddess Sarasvati presides.   She especially supports the arts: music, literature, and language.  Students place pens, pencils, and notebooks at her feet for her blessing.  In her left hand she holds the vina, a generic term for any stringed instrument.  (At my house, Sarasvati sits in my writing nook, hopefully to inspire my writing.)  Special color for the festival – yellow.  Special food, Kesar Halwa, a confection of flour, sugar, nuts, cardamom powder and saffron.

AND HERE WE ARE – A THREE DAY WEEKEND – PRESIDENTS’ DAY –  February 18

First there was GEORGE WASHINGTON – Once Known as the “Father of His Country” – the general who managed to avoid British Defeat – The first President of the United States.  Among the many words attributed to him, his reflection on the American revolution for freedom against Great Britain: “Our cause is noble; it is the cause of mankind.”  Washington’s Birthday is on February 22, but was not a national holiday.  Just an opportunity for school children to change the class bulletin board from the commemoration of Abraham Lincoln.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN – The Great Emancipator who presided over what some historians call the Second American Revolution.  He was born in a log cabin on February 12, self educated, the man who said:  “Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the Earth.”

In 1968 Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Bill specifically to create the maximum number of three-day weekends.  Thus, the birthdays of Washington and Lincoln became more than individual bulletin board displays.  Now they have national recognition.  But whether we notice the contributions these men made to the United States as much as we stress over Valentine’s Day – you be the judge.

Holidays are about who we are and what we believe as a culture – religiously, politically, historically.  They are opportunities for refreshment, reflection, and laughter.  To have so many holidays over nine days – amazing

The post SIX FEBRUARY HOLIDAYS IN THE SAME WEEK first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.