The city of Herculaneum was small in comparison to the better-known city of Pompeii, a town for high-ranking Romans seeking an escape to the seaside with its cooling breezes. It was blazing hot the day I visited. Over the years, Herculaneum sank beneath the earth that grows above ancient cities, and though the site isn’t too far from the sea, it is further inland than it was in AD 79. On the day I visited, there was no breeze and no shade, but there was a planned ancient city with mansions for its wealthy inhabitants.

In AD 79, Mount Vesuvius, a somma-strato volcano, erupted with explosive violence and released a cloud of stones, ashes, and volcanic gasses as well as molten rock and pulverized pumice. By way of comparison, the force was 100,000 times more thermal energy than that released by the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

When Mount Vesuvius erupted, most of the volcanic material fell onto Pompeii. Roofs collapsed under the weight of debris and ash, but only a few centimeters of ash fell onto Herculaneum. Instead, ash and hot gas flowed down the mountain and through the town at about 100 miles an hour. Over six flows, city buildings were buried about 66 feet deep. The high temperature of the first volcanic flow carbonized wood in the buildings resulting in artifacts that were destroyed in Pompeii. Volcanic rock called tuft covered the site for 1700 years with an air tight seal.

The primary cause of human deaths was the intense heat from volcanic gas which reached a temperature of 1022 degrees Fahrenheit. In particular, excavations from 1980-1982 uncovered 55 skeletons on the ancient beach in front of the city walls. Further excavations uncovered more skeletons raising the death toll to 340. Male skeletons rested on the beach while women and children took shelter in warehouses, now called boat houses. All awaited a rescue that never came. The bodies turned into vapor, leaving only jewelry and other metal objects on the skeletons.

The eruption buried Herculaneum in about 66 feet of ash, protecting the site from looting and weather damage. Essentially, the city slept, its material culture preserved until 1738 when men digging a well found the theater. Today 75 per cent of the site has yet to be excavated.

The remains of Herculaneum are now an open-air archeological museum and UNESCO World Heritage site. 

In comparison to the Villa Romano on Sicily, it felt strange to walk the streets and enter the houses at Herculaneum. Perhaps the sensation was due to Herculaneum’s abrupt and violent end in comparison to the villa which was probably abandoned before being buried. The villa holds its secrets without drama. But in Herculaneum, I was conscious of life’s fragility whether in the first century AD or our own time. Going about their routines, the people of Herculaneum were aware of Vesuvius, but could not know that everything was about to abruptly stop, freezing the historical moment until modern excavations. History is more than documents or material culture. It is being able to reach back in time.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Ancient Roman city of Herculaneum by Diego Delso, 2023. Herculaneum Past, Present & future by Charles Waldstein, 1908. Lava from Vesuvius by Pietro Fabris 1760. Boat Houses, Photo by Author. Artifacts, Photo by Author. Interior Fresco, Photo by Author.

Guillermo Altares. Herculaneum, the Roman city destroyed by Vesuvius. El Pais 50. July 31 2023.

The Story of Herculaneum. Herculaneum Society.

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The post Touching the Past — My Visit to Herculaneum first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

It’s hard to imagine the past. As an historian, my imagination can stretch as far back as the 18th century. With a little extra creativity, I can reach the 17th century. But earlier times are elusive unless I can connect with the material culture to build a bridge that connects to the distant past. I think this is why traveling to distant locales is such an important part of my life.

This year I escaped to Sicily and southern Italy, places I’ve never been before, and hiked through extreme heat to visit sites connected to Ancient Rome and Greece. The sites did not disappoint. One of them was the Villa Romano Del Casale.

Located on Sicily, the Villa Romano is a World Heritage site built in the middle of the fourth century. The villa’s claim to fame rests on its well-preserved and extensive Roman mosaics covering about 3500 square meters, as well as frescoes on the exterior walls and interior rooms. The site continued to be in use until a landslide in the mid-12th century covered the villa. Though some evidence of the past was visible above ground, the area was used for crop cultivation. The first professional excavations took place in 1929, and have continued over the years since.

The villa was probably a hunting lodge until the Romans partitioned much of the Sicilian hinterland into agricultural estates called latifundia. The Villa Romano was one of these. The landowner in his role of patron needed a place to receive clients. Multiple reception and state rooms were also needed as well as private apartments for the owner and his family. African artisans are credited with designing and installing the mosaic floors.

Over time, the villa expanded along three terraces organized around three axis. The first terrace with private apartments, teh basilica, and the Corridor of the Great Hunt is in the east. The next terrace has a dining area and an oval courtyard, accessible from the Corridor of the Great Hunt. The third terrace includes baths and a large entrance area.

Coronation of the Winner

One fresco is surprisingly well-known. Called Coronation of the Winner, the fresco depicts female athletes competing in contests that are usually interpreted as weight lifting, discus throwing, running, and batting a ball. An official on the bottom left of the picture holds the trophy crown and palm frond. At the center of this panel, the victor is crowned. Some modern viewers fixate on the contestants’ athletic attire, comparing the two-piece ensemble to contemporary swim wear. It strikes me the athletes were more interested in modesty and ease of motion.

Corridor of the Great Hunt

The Corridor of the Great Hunt, probably created in the year 330 AD, is the 197 feet long, the longest extant mosaic from the Roman Empire. The entire floor is covered with images of the hunt to capture exotic animals from Africa and bring them to Rome for display. Carthage is pictured as the departure port where animals were loaded onto a boat known as a navis with both sails and oars for transport to Rome where they are offloaded at the nearest port.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Erotic Scene Mosaic, Photo by Author; Villa del Casale Plan, Public Domain; Coronation of the Winner, Photo by Author; Exotic Animal Transportation, Public Domain; Mosaic Bird, Photo by Author. Patrizio Pensabene and Enrico Gallocchio. “The Villa Del Casale of Piazza Armerina.” Expedition Magazine, vol 53, No 2. 2011.

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The post Touching the Past — Villa Romano del Casale first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Have you planted tomatoes in your garden or windowsill pots yet? You might even be on your second planting by now. Statistically, 55 percent of American households have a garden. About 43 percent of those gardens grow food, and tomatoes are planted in 86 percent of food gardens. In fact, Americans eat about 1 billion pounds of tomatoes annually. With over 10,000 varieties to choose from in a cornucopia of colors, tomatoes could be called an all-American fruit. Or are they vegetables?

Tomato Trivia

Tomatoes originally grew wild near the Andes mountains. Over time indigenous people brought the plant they called tomatl north through Central America and into Mexico. The tomatl was used in cooking and as a gift for newlyweds to promote fertility.

When Spanish conquistadors arrived in Mexico in the early 16^th century, they called the food tomate. It is said Cortez discovered the fruit in Montezuma’s gardens and brought the seeds back to Spain. The first variety of tomato to reach Europe was probably yellow, leading to the name poi d’oro, or yellow apples.

Over time, the plant made its way further into Europe, most commonly as an ornamental plant. The new plant had several names. In 1544 Italian herbalist Pietro Andrea Mattioli classified the tomato as a nightshade and a mandrake. Mandrakes were known as aphrodisiacs, which may be why the French called the new fruit a love apple —the pomme d’amour—or golden apple. This potentially scandalous application limited the number of people willing to try the new food.

Many thought the new plant was poisonous, and called the fruit a poison apple. In fact, the leaves, stems and roots of the tomato plant contain solanine, a neurotoxin and should not be eaten. The tomato plant is also a relative of deadly nightshade. Botanist Joseph Pitton De Tournefort gave the new fruit its official name of Lycopersicon esculentum. The moniker translates as edible wolf peach. Peach because the fruit was round, and was thought to be the poison Galen referred to in the 3rd century when discussing ways to entice and then kill unwanted wolves.

Alternatively, German myths claimed that witches used mandrake and nightshade to summon werewolves. And the earliest German name for tomatoes was Wolfpfirsich which translates to wolf peach. Later in the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus modified the translation of Lycopersicon esculentum to “edible wolf peach.”

Some people tried the fruit, and lived to tell the tale. But, the didn’t care for the taste or the smell. In 1597 English botanist John Gerard declared tomatoes were corrupt and of rank & stinking savor.

However, these technical details were not why people thought the tomato was poisonous. Many upper class Europeans died after consuming tomatoes, proving it was better not to eat the fruit, no matter how delicious it looked. It turns out this was a false association. Upper class Europeans ate off of pewter plates, and acidic tomatoes leeched lead out of the pewter. Thus wealthy diners died from lead poisoning after consuming tomato based dishes off pewter dishes. Sometimes common pottery makes the best dinnerware.

But tastes change. In the 19^th century Italians began using tomatoes in their pasta dishes. Previously, Italians had used lardo, the pig back fat that was a byproduct of processing prosciutto, with their pasta dishes. But in the 19^th century, pig farmers changed to a different breed that produced a leaner prosciutto. The lardo, however, did not taste as good as before. Italian cooks began experimenting and settled on tomato based sauces to accompany pasta dishes.

Over time, tomatoes became better known in North America. Maria Parloa’s 1872 Appledore Cook Book included an early recipe for Tomato Soup.

Peel & slice tomatoes enough to fill a two-quart basin. Put them into the soup kettle with six quarts of water & 2 pounds of beef. Boil 3 hours. Season with pepper, salt & and spoonfuls of butter. Strain. Serve with toasted bread.

During the tomato’s checkered history, it was considered a fruit. The story of how the tomato became a vegetable is in my next blog.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Garden Tomatoes by Mdmad1234; Yellow Tomatoes by Goldilocks; Tacuinum Sanitation Mandrake Dog c. 1390; Tomatoes, gouache on vellum by Hans-Simon Holtzbecker, 17th century; Pasta Eater: Allegory of Taste by Luca Giordano, 17th Century; Illustration from the original Appledore Cook Book; Bowl of Tomato Basic Soup by Srujanabotcha. Jacqui. “Neapolitan Zita Pasta with Italian Lardo.” the Pasta project. Feb. 23, 2022. Peggy Trowbridge Filippone. “The History of Tomatoes as Food.” The Spruce Eats. Dec. 28 2022. Dale E Hammerschmidt & Michael J. Franklin. “The Edible Wolf Peach.” Translational Research. Vol. 146, Issue 4, October 2005.

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The post Tomatoes: From the Andes to Your Garden first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Once again, Americans have turned back time. By the time this blog officially launches on November 3, 2025, it will all be over. Americans will have changed time at 2:00 a.m. local time Sunday,  November 2.

Wait — What?

You mean you didn’t know we could control time? Benjamin Franklin suggested the concept in 1784 when he lived in Paris serving as the American ambassador to France.

Franklin observed in a somewhat satirical essay published in Journal de Paris that if Parisians adjusted their sleep schedules to rise earlier, they would need fewer candles and less lamp oil, which would save them money.

“Your readers, who with me have never seen any sign of sunshine before noon, and seldom regard the astronomical part of the almanac, will be as much astonished as I was, when they hear of his rising so early; and especially when I assure them, that he gives light as soon as he rises. I am convinced of this. I am certain of my fact. One cannot be more certain of any fact. I saw it with my own eyes.”

The idea didn’t catch on.

Until, There Was Standard Railroad Time

To understand how Daylight Saving became a national mandate, we need to take a step back into the 19^th century. Prior to 1883, time was a simple matter. When the sun reached its highest observation point, it was noon. Of course, the sun can be fickle about its appearance. Sometimes, for example, there is cloud cover. And, the sun shines slightly differently in Boston, Massachusetts than it does in, for example, Charleston, South Carolina. Which meant that when it was noon in Boston, it was 11:43 a.m. in Charleston. At the time, it didn’t seem to matter, because it was unlikely a person in Boston would have a noon appointment in Charleston.

Except that railroad networks in North America were expanding, and differing local times made it impossible to compute accurate timetables. Enter Sandford Flemming, chief engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1878 he suggested dividing the entire world into time zones. There would be 24 meridians; each meridian would be 15 degrees away from the next meridian, creating a time difference of one hour.  On November 18, 1883, most railroads in the U.S. and Canada began operating on Standard Railroad Time in four different time zones: Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. 

With a few adjustments, the Interstate Commerce Commission introduced legislation to Congress, and on  March 19, 1918 Congress passed the Standard Time Act.

Daylight Time

At that time [pun intended], the U.S. was involved in World War I, and looking for ways to conserve resources. In 1916 Germany and other European countries involved in the war had introduced the concept of Daylight Time to reduce expenditures for electricity and coal. On March 31, 1918 the U.S. followed their example and introduced Daylight Time. Of course, the amount of daylight in a given day remained the same. But moving the clock forward reduced the number of daylight hours people would still be sleeping, and increase the hours they would be awake. Thus reducing the need to generate electricity for light and use coal for heating.

Despite the patriotic reasoning, changing time twice in the same month must have been unnerving. If you can’t count on time, what can you count on? Farmers, in particular, argued that changing clock time didn’t change when cows needed milking, chickens needed feeding, or crops needed harvesting before the day heated up. Under public pressure, Congress ended Daylight Time after the war was over. The United States continued on Standard Time until the next major war.

War Time

In an effort to reduce electricity usage that was higher in winter than summer, President Roosevelt introduced War Time, previously called Daylight Saving, on February 9, 1942. The president noted Lost Ground Can Always Be Regained – Lost Time, Never! and admonished Americans to Avoid Time Off, Avoid Time Out, and whatever you do, Don’t Slow Up The Ship!

Congress repealed War Time the last Sunday of September 1944. But unlike the change in 1919, many states and cities continued to enact daylight saving, and created a patchwork of time zones.

Uniform Time

In 1966, Congress passed the Uniform Time Act and returned the control of time to the federal government. In 1967 Standard Time became mandatory for all states, and Daylight Time was mandatory from the last Sunday in April through the last Sunday in October. States were allowed to opt out of Daylight Time, which Arizona promptly did (excepting territory occupied by the Navajo Nation). Today Hawai`i, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands also remain on Standard Time.

Most recently the Energy Policy Act of 2005 stipulated the present calendar dates for Daylight Saving beginning on the second Sunday in March and ending the first Sunday in November. The map at right indicates regions that alternate between standard time and daylight time in blue, and those that do not in orange.

Is the matter settled? No. Every spring and every fall the debate over the pros and cons of daylight saving continues. Statistics from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine show that about 63 percent of Americans would like to stop saving daylight, particularly since not that much energy is saved. Lighting uses less overall energy than it did a hundred years ago, and increasing daylight hours only serves to encourage people to use either more air conditioning or heating, depending on the weather.

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The Life & Times of Sarah Good, Accused Witch

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Illustrations & a Few Sources

You Can’t Stop Time; Benjamin Franklin by Joseph Duplessis, about 1785; The Sun; Sandford Fleming by John Wycliffe Lowes Forster 1892; Time Zones of U.S. 1913; Poster Issued by United Cigar Stores Company 1918; Don’t Slow the Ship, NARA 1942/3; Map of Daylight Savings in U.S. 2023. “Did Ben Franklin Invent Daylight Saving Time?” The Franklin Institute. Sleep Experts Want To Stop ‘Springing Forward’ to Daylight Saving Time. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Ian R Bartky and Elizabeth Harrison. “Standard and Daylight-saving Time.” Scientific American. Vol. 240. No. 5. May 1979. 46-53. Veronique Greenwood. “The Dark Side of Daylight Saving Time.” Time. Nov. 1, 2025.

The post YOU CAN’T STOP TIME, BUT YOU CAN CHANGE IT first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Halloween, once called Samhain, is nigh. In two weeks costumed children, as well as adults, will pass through neighborhoods or decorated trunk-or-treat parking lots with dulcet cries of “Trick or Treat.” 

Halloween is the modern iteration of Samhain [pronounced SOW-wen] a Celtic festival that begins at sundown October 31 and continues into November 1. As customs changed over time, Samhain divided into Halloween and All Saints Day, with Halloween keeping up with ancient traditions. About this time last year, I posted a blog focused on Samhain. And my blog two weeks ago looked at the custom of bobbing for apples.

There are spiritual aspects to Samhain. One story reveals that the Sun God dies at Samhain and departs to prepare for his rebirth at Yule. The god’s death insures his people will live. After the Sun God dies, the Lord of Misrule takes his place, giving light without warmth in the winter months. Sometimes the Lord of Misrule is said to symbolize the power of looking at life from a different perspective.

Goddess Cerridwen

Goddess Cerridwen rules over transformations, rebirth, and inspiration. Every goddess or god has a role to play, even if it’s just to provide explanations to the inexplicable. A 16th century manuscript by Elis Gruffydd recounts one of the legends about Cerridwen and her progeny. Is it positive or negative? You be the judge.

Ceridwen and her husband Tegid Foel lived near what is now Bala Lake in North Wales. The couple had two children: a beautiful daughter, Creirwy, who was full of light and life, and an ugly, ill-tempered son call Morfan. Ceridwen wanted give her son wisdom and poetic inspiration to compensate for his appearance. So, Ceridwen used her magical cauldron and mixed a potion.

The mixture had to boil for a year and a day. Obviously, Ceridwen had other things to do, so she employed a blind man named Morda to tend the fire beneath the cauldron and a young boy named Gwion Bach to stir the mixture.

Now there was a secret to the potion. The first three drops of the mixture would grant the recipient wisdom and poetic inspiration. The rest of the potion was poisonous.

Just as the mixture was almost ready, Gwion had an accident. Three drops of the hot liquid fell onto Gwion’s hand. The lad put his burned hand into his mouth, thus gaining the wisdom intended for Morfan. Gwion knew he was in trouble and ran away. Ceridwen realized what had happened and chased him.

Using the power he received from the potion, Gwion turned himself into a hare. Ceridwen became a greyhound and chased him. Gwion dove into a river and became a fish; Ceridwen became an otter and swam after him. Gwion became a bird and flew away; Ceridwen became a hawk and hunted Gwion with a fierce determination. Finally, Gwion came up with the idea of turning himself into a single grain of corn. How could the goddess find him amongst the many kernels of corn scattered everywhere? Ceridwen became a chicken scratching amongst the kernels until she found Gwion and ate him.

You might think the story ends here, but no. When Ceridwen became pregnant, she knew the growth within her body was Gwion assuming another shape, and decided that when she gave birth, she would kill him.

But when she saw the babe, he was perfect, and Ceridwen could not carry out her intention. Instead, she sealed the child inside a leather skin bag and threw him into the ocean. Eventually, the bag washed ashore where a prince named Elffin ap Gwyddno rescued the babe and took him home. When the infant grew up, he became a famous poet known as Taliesin.

Time passed, and either Creirwy or Morfan had a child. The king, Tepid Foel, held a banquet with the best quality of food, wine, and entertainment to celebrate his first grandchild.

As the wine flowed, the harp player heard a small voice saying, “Vengeance will come.” As he looked around, he saw a bird watching him and followed it outside to the top of a hill overlooking the town. As the harpist listened to the bird sing, he fell asleep. When he awoke, the town and palace were submerged under a great lake and his harp floated on the surface.

It is said that if you walk near the edge of Bala Lake, you can sometimes hear a quiet conversation.

First Voice: Vengeance will come.

Second Voice: When will it come?

First Voice: In the third generation!

COMING SOON!

The Life & Times of Sarah Good, Accused Witch

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Bats, Haunted House, & Full Moon by Alexas Fotos; President George W. Bush on Halloween at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. 2006; Lord of Misrule 1887; Ceridwen by Christopher Williams; Print by J. E. C. Williams in the book ‘Y Mabinogion, 1901; Polygon illustration of hen’s head; Sculpture of Poet Taliesin in Pennal, Wales; Welsh Chaffinch by Holly Victoria Norval; Bala Lake by Mick Garratt. The Birth of Gala Lake. Amgueddfa Llangollen Museum. Samhain Lore. Angelfire.

The post Halloween Stories first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Fall officially began last month, but October is the month I always associate with the changing of the seasons from summer activities to those that announce Fall and the Harvest Season has arrived. Deciduous trees paint the horizon in warm colors before swirling to the ground. Halloween preparations are underway, and black cats are understandably nervous as witchy images fly on magical brooms. In some places, hayrides under a full moon are an activity hearkening back to earlier times.

Bobbing for Apples

Bobbing for apples, however, is a custom often overlooked in modern times. For one thing, the activity is potentially messy if the apple tub is too full of water.

Ripe apples are symbol of fall abundance, but the custom of retrieving an apple from a tub of water with one’s teeth, or using said teeth to separate an apple from a string seems a bit far-fetched. So, here’s the story behind this autumn activity.

Bobbing for apples is a custom that stretches back to our Celtic and Roman cultural ancestors. At the end of October, Celts celebrated the festival of Samhain. Participants lit large bonfires and tied apples to evergreen branches.

The Celts believed apples were a symbol of love, fertility, divination, and magic. And it became a custom for young people to try and bite into an apple that was either floating in water or hanging from a string as part of a matchmaking game in which the first one to bite into an apple would be the next person allowed to marry.

Meanwhile, the Romans had autumn customs based around the goddess Pomona who ruled over orchards and harvests. When the Romans arrived in Briton, their customs merged with Celtic traditions.

Apples & Courtship

There were various apple bobbing customs. In one, the apples had young men’s names on them, and young women took turns trying to snag the apple with the name of a preferred partner.

• If she snagged the apple on her first try, the relationship was off to a good start.
• If she snagged it on the second try, sparks would fly but the relationship would fizzle out.
• If she tried a third time and snagged the apple, it wasn’t worth the trouble, because no relationship would blossom.

In the Irish game of snap-apple, players lunged at apples hanging from strings. Single men and women competed to determine who would marry next. The first to snag an apple would marry soon. In the painting above, lads in the foreground bob for apples while the ladies in the back may be trying to snag a hanging apple.

How to Bob for Apples

In contemporary games, most often at Halloween parties, five or more apples are placed in a shallow bowl of water which is just over half full. Players take turns, using only their mouths to dunk their heads in the water, bite an apple, and remove it from the tub. The player with the fastest time wins.

Snagging an apple with your teeth can be tricky. The stem is the easiest part of the apple to bite, as the illustration on the left demonstrates.

Some say the trick is to use your face to push the apple to the bottom of the hopefully shallow tub or push it to the side. Either method may provide enough leverage to make it easier to snag the wet fruit.

I think I’ll skip the bobbing this year, and wait for the pie.

Uncle Wiggily’s Apple Roast

Uncle Wiggily is an elder rabbit whose adventures in Woodland are the subject of a 1919 children’s book. In this excerpt, Uncle Wiggily is at a Halloween party.

Nurse Jane Fuzzy Fuzzy, the nice muskrat lady housekeeper, brought in a tub full of water. It was set in the middle of the room and some apples were floated on top of the water, like toy ships.

“You may duck first for an apple, Jackie,” said Uncle Wiggily to the little puppy dog chap.

Jackie knelt down by the tub and put his front paws behind his back. For it isn’t fair to use your paws when you try to catch a floating apple in your teeth.

Just as Jackie was leaning over the tub, his brother, Peetie, slyly gave him a push and Jackie’s head went under the water.

“Now Peetie, you mustn’t play any more tricks on your brother when he is trying to bite his apple,” said Uncle Wiggily, after Jackie had been dried off from the apple tub.

“No, I won’t touch him!” said Peetie, and then Jackie got hold of his apple in his teeth.

The apples were swinging by long strings, and it is hard to bite one unless you use your paws or your hands. But that isn’t allowed. Sammie Littletail was banged in the eye and Johnnie Bushytail on the nose. But it was lots of Halloween fun!

Illustration from Uncle Wiggily’s Apple Roast , 1919

Uncle Wiggily’s Apple Roast, or How Nurse Jane’s Pin Cushion Fooled the Skuddlemagoon and Uncle Wiggle’s Hallowe’en Party. Also How He Helped Jack Frost. Text by Howard R. Garis. Illustrations by Lang Campbell. 1919.

COMING SOON!

The Life & Times of Sarah Good, Accused Witch

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Witch riding a broomstick with a black cat, 1908; Hayride, Port Dover 1919; Apple Bobbing, 1950; Bonfire sparks by TwilightLillez; Pomona & Cupid by Gaspar Peeter Verbruggen the Younger; Snap-Apple Night by Daniel Maclise, 1833; Halloween Pleasures, 1911; Drawing of apple pie, 1886. “Why do we bob for apples on Halloween?” Irish Myths. Alison Richards. “The Secret, Steamy History of Halloween Apples.” NPR. Oct. 31, 2013.

The post Bobbing for Apples, An Autumn Tradition first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

The so-called Green Man motif, like the one on the left, is often found in medieval grotesques. An ancient symbol of rebirth, the Green Man is linked to spring, and earlier gods of the forest. Most generally, the Green Man is surrounded by leaves or branches.

This Green Man lives in York Minster, beneath the kings on the Quire Screen. And though surrounded by what looks like foliage, his color is gilt, not green.

Nearby, there is a companion carving also covered in gilt. To my eye, this figure has a feline countenance. This type of grotesque has almond-shaped eyes, and an open mouth. It also has hands with which to grasp the foliage.

Unlike the grotesques in the Chapter House, and carvings elsewhere in the Minster, these figures give a glimpse of the original sculpted figures that were once brightly painted.

The Chapter House at York Minster

The Chapter House at York Minister is a unique structure for several reasons, one of which is its distinctive ceiling. In particular, there is no central column holding it up. The vaulted ceiling is supported by painted wooden timbers. How so? Timber is a lighter weight than stone, and can support the roof with the weight transferring to columns between seven stained glass windows. Exterior buttresses against the exterior walls help distribute their weight.

Beneath the stained glass windows, there are forty-four seats for the canons of York Minster. Each canon can look across the open space with an unobstructed view of their colleagues. [Whether he can actually see his fellow clergy is another matter.]

Medieval canons with wandering minds could look at the jeweled stained glass, or up to the vaulted ceiling. They could also look at the grotesque sculptures near each seat. Over 200 individual stone portraits of men, women, and beasts reveal a kaleidoscope of facial expressions and behaviors. The mouth on the woman above, for example, is covered. Did she talk too much? Or perhaps she had a tendency to gossip.

The Chapter House Grotesques

In many ways, grotesque figures are archetypes illustrating various themes. Scholars once attributed the fact that so many grotesques are clutching their mouths to mean toothaches and other dental problems were rampant. Given the state of dentistry, they probably were, but there are other possible explanations. The usual name given to these figures is “mouth-pullers.” And the behavior of the figure on the right with one hand tearing out his hair, and the other near his mouth is an illustration of Anger, or Wrath — one of the Seven Deadly Sins.

The chap on the left seems to have other issues. Note his look of consternation, or is it revulsion, with his the wrinkled brow, horrified eyes, open mouth, and a seemingly complete set of teeth.

There are also faces screaming in terror. This fellow on the right stares forward with horror, his mouth (with another set of good teeth) is open in shock or pain. And who can blame him for his surprise? He has a creature sitting on his head with its claws extended into his scalp. Ouch! Beastly grotesques are said to indicate a chaotic life energy which may explain why the winged beast looks as horrified as his host.

A wide open mouth with a protruding tongue is said to be a symbol of devouring giants. But who is the chap on the left consuming? He too has a good set of teeth.( At this point on my voyage of grotesque discovery, I did a search on the symbolism of teeth. One site suggested teeth can manifest “emptiness,” and transience. Not very cheerful, but I thought I’d share the possibility.)

Did the canons zone out from meetings by contemplating horror, doom, & gloom? Did they muse on the possibility of their dire future existence in hell? Were their thoughts consumed by worry about a mythical bird sitting on their heads, clawing out their eyes, and pecking on their respective noses? Was it always a case of man pulling himself out of the abyss? If so, perhaps the canons should pay attention to the topics under discussion and keep their eyes on heaven.

Happily, there are a few carvings of folks who experience some happiness, such as this couple on the right who seem nervous but content.

There are also monkeys who seem to giggle at whatever sight they are viewing. This is not a good sign, since monkeys symbolized man’s folly and vanity. Perhaps they are not the best figures to emulate, but compared to other sculptures, they have a certain charm.

Dogs also have a friendly vibe. I’m not sure what this one holds in his mouth. It looks a bit like a fish to me.

Dogs, monkeys, bears and other animals were viewed as lower than humans who were expected to exhibit a higher standard of behavior.

In the Chapter House, the sculptures may have been put above each seat to create an opposite to each occupant. In all things, there had to be a balance of good and evil. If one carving was a benign figure, there had to be an opposite carving to instill a fear of falling into evil.

So for every depiction of what might be innocence, such as the young man on the left, there must be another who will pay an agonizing price for choosing the wrong path. Indeed, the fellow on the right looks as if he’s repenting as the winged figure digs its claws into his scalp.

Incidentally, the grotesques were not the monochromatic figures they are today. Originally they were painted in colors as bright as stained glass which must have made them appear all the more realistic.

COMING SOON!

The Life & Times of Sarah Good, Accused Witch

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Chapter House Ceiling by Michael D. Beckwith. Chapter House Windows by Paul Hudson. Chapter House Interior by Tilman2007. All other photos by Author. “York Minster.” Britain and Britishness. “York Minster Chapter House.” Historiette. Feb. 17, 2022.

The post Chapter House Grotesques at York Minster first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Over the years, I have visited York Minster many times. And I always see something unexpected, like this chap on the left. It seems uniquely appropriate that a creature such as this should be restrained by fencing in the Stonemasons’ Yard.

The wide-eyed creature with pointed ears clutches his head while a frog crawls out from under its sharply pointed teeth. During medieval times, frogs represented demons. And demons, as people knew then, were fallen angels.

This particular frog’s eviction doesn’t necessarily seem voluntary, but the frog appears to experience less pain than its host.

The creature’s body has a humanoid appearance. In its left hand, the creature holds a fish, a medieval symbol of Christianity. The sculpture’s message might be that Christ has evicted the creature’s demons.

The next question a viewer might have is who, or what, this unhappy creature is. The statue is what is known as a grotesque, a word Dictionary.com translates as an ugly, or comically distorted figure, creature or image. If the sculpture contained a drainage spout, it would be called a gargoyle.

This particular grotesque was designed to replace a statue on one of the York Minister buttresses that has been worn down by wind and rain. The original carving is how a shapeless blob of stonework. Its condition might be even worse than the illustration at right.

In recreating the creature, Lewis Morrison selected the theme of good and evil: frog and fish. He and his associates hand-carved the half-ton figure from 1,510 pounds of local limestone that was probably taken from a quarry near Tadcaster.

Once in place, no one on the ground will be able to see this mythical creature as it stands, a silent sentinel of cosmic struggle.

There has been a Stonemasons’ Yard at York Minster since the 18th century. The work of restoration is a never-ending and expensive process supported by individual, private and public donations. The present stoneyard established in 1914, is being transformed into a Center for Excellence.

The Doom Stone

The York Minster grotesques seem almost benign in comparison to the Doom Stone, presently housed in the crypt.

The stone dates back to the 12th century Norman period. The figures are difficult to see. The limestone has eroded, and the paint is reduced to small chips. It may be part of a larger sculpture, or perhaps not.

Whatever its original intent, the Doom Stone is about the pathway to damnation. The man in the upper left carries bags of money to symbolize greed.

The well-dressed woman in the upper right personifies lust. All the figures are being pushed into a cauldron at a lower level of hell. The cauldron itself is supported by two demons and two devils. At the bottom, toads clean the nostrils of a central face.

External Grotesques & Gargoyles

A plethora of grotesques decorate York Minster’s exterior.

Female and male, they sit on the exterior edges in contemplation.

A craftsman emerges from the stone with his chisel.

A snake appears to be wrapped around this man who may be consuming something he shouldn’t.

The last picture in our gallery is an intricately carved couple lounging above 17th century funerary monuments. The viewer can see the woman’s facial expression, her intricate hairstyle, her jewelry and fashionable clothing. Sadly, her partner appears to have “lost his head;” the woman appears to be grasping at his cowl. He, too, is well-dressed, wearing his sword on his right side and dagger on his left. Who were they? Where did the gentleman leave his head? And why did the woman keep her head while the man lost his? Alas, it is unlikely we’ll ever know.

[Note: Many statues in the nave lost their heads during the 16th century reformation. But this carving is in the north quire aisle.]

COMING SOON!

The Life & Times of Sarah Good, Accused Witch

Illustrations & A Few Sources

All Photos by Author. Roff Smith. “Here’s How You Sculpt a Medieval Statue in the 21st Century.” National Geographic. Feb. 4, 2025. Tim Barber. “York Minster’s Sinister Doomstone.” Real Yorkshire Blog. Sept. 23, 2022.

The post York Minster Grotesques & Other Carvings first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

When I was in middle school, every student had to take a semester of music and a semester of art before they could take any other electives unless they kept to either music or art for their entire middle school career. I didn’t know if I would like music, but I knew I wouldn’t like art, because I could not draw worth a diddle, and my color choices didn’t bode well for water color exercises.

Not surprisingly, I chose two semesters of chorus, and planned to sing the rest of my middle school career . . . until for some reason I decided I wanted to take typing – now known as keyboarding. It was a wise choice since I’m on the keyboard everyday, but to get into typing class, I had to face art class. We had exciting projects. One was to hold your left hand in front of your face and without looking down at the paper, draw the hand. That went about as well as you might expect, and my grade wasn’t looking too good.

But, it was possible to earn extra credit by doing an oral report on an artist and his [It was his back then.] work. So, off I went to the library and found an illustrated book about Rembrandt. Not only did it have basic information on Rembrandt’s life and career. It had a two-page illustration of his famous painting: Night Watch. The picture was black and white, but I could still hold the book up and hide behind the it.

My recent visit to Amsterdam gave me the opportunity to visit the Rijksmuseum and view Rembrandt’s famous painting in person while observing current restoration efforts.

Commissioning Rembrandt’s Night Watch

In 1638, Amsterdam was a center of art, science, and commerce. The city was at the height of its Golden Age when, over objections from the seat of government at The Hague, Amsterdam invited the exiled Marie de Medici for an official visit. The city hoped to broker an understanding with France so that Marie could be reconciled with her son Louis XIII. This did not work out, but the visit was an overall success from Amsterdam’s perspective.

Marie’s visit from August 31 to September 5, 1638 was a six day celebration with accompanying pageantry. Although it rained the entire time, a full complement of Amsterdam’s militias, known as Kloveniers, escorted the exiled queen throughout the city. Marie took her meals at the Amsterdam Admiralty. However, her entourage convened on the first floor of the Klovenier’s Great Hall. Borrowed tapestries covered blank walls for the duration of Marie’s visit. Afterwards, the militias decided to cover the halls with large group portraits of the six city militias.

Traditionally, such group portraits gave each subject equal attention. This seemed fair, since each member of the company contributed to the cost of the portrait. This is the militia company of District VIII under the command of Captain Roelof Bicker by Bartholomeus van Der Holst. The images are posed, static, and do not detract from identifiable members of the group.

In 1639 Captain Frans Banning Cocq and seventeen members of his militia commissioned Rembrandt to paint their group portrait. Each member contributed towards Rembrandt’s fee with Captain Cocq and his lieutenant, Willem Van Ruytenburch, contributing the largest amounts. The painting’s projected dimensions were 12 feet by 14.5 feet, too large for the artist’s studio. Rembrandt probably completed the painting in a lean-to located in his garden.

Rembrandt’s Vision

Rembrandt did not paint a traditional group portrait. On the contrary, he used light and dark hues to create the picture of a militia in action.

The time of day is dawn. Captain Cocq gives Lieutenant Ruytenburch the order to move out with a gesture of his hand. Militia members get into formation; an ensign carries the company colors on the left. Men check their weapons. The drummer prepares to beat for action.

The most important figures—the figures with the most light—are Captain Cocq, Lieutenant Ruytenburch, and a young girl. Cocq’s clothing denotes his status. He has a lace collar, black attire made from fine fabric, and a sash and baton to denote his rank. Cocq’s lieutenant turns toward him to acknowledge the commander’s orders. His own attire is the same pigment of yellow artists used to paint lemons in still lives. His jacket features fine embroidery. Both men are the epitome of wealthy merchants.

A shadow by the drum outlines a dog. Over time, the top layers of the figure were lost due to abrasion of the paint leaving only the light sketch beneath the paint.

The girl is an enigma. Was she a real person or a symbolic mascot? Experts compare her face to that of Rembrandt’s wife Saskia who died in 1642 from tuberculosis. A dead chicken with large claws hangs from her belt. A pistol called a clover is beneath the chicken. The claws and clover were symbols of these “Kloveniers,” and generally depicted as a golden claw on a blue field.

In 1715 the city moved Rembrandt’s painting to a venue at the Town Hall that was smaller than its place in Great Hall. The painting’s size was trimmed on all four size to fit the space.

In the late 18th century, people began calling Rembrandt’s painting Night Watch. The painting was covered with a dark varnish, and no longer bore any resemblance to dawn. Today the official title of Rembrandt’s painting is Civic Guardsmen of District II under the Command of Captain Frans Bannick Cocq. It’s much easier to refer to Rembrandt’s painting as Night Watch.

Operation Night Watch

In July 2019, the Rijksmuseum embarked on a massive restoration project called Operation Night Watch. Researchers began mapping Rembrandt’s painting layer-by-layer and pigment-by-pigment, using high resolution digital photography, x-rays, fluorescence analysis, and spectroscopy. Rather than removing the painting from public viewing, the Rijksmuseum made the entire process a public display.

Among other discoveries, the process has revealed Rembrandt’s original sketches beneath the paint as he tried out different ideas, and the types and pigments of the artist’s paints.

Gallery of Honor

The Night Watch is housed in its own gallery at the end of the Gallery of Honor on the second level of the Rijksmuseum. It creates the impression that the entire history of Dutch painting in the Golden Age led to this one master piece.

Night Watch was one of the last portrait paintings of its kind in terms of scale, and by the late 18th century militias played an increasingly less prominent role in Dutch life.

I didn’t enjoy my middle school art class, but the extra credit report I did on Rembrandt introduced me to the world of art. I will always be grateful for that introduction.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Rembrandt Self-Portrait in a Flat Cap, 1642; Arrival of Maria de Medici in Amsterdam by Salomon Saver; District VIII under the command of Captain Roelof Bicker by Bartholomeus van Der Holst, 1643; Night Watch Restoration by Rembrandt by Vbena; Detail: Girl in Night Watch; Night Watch Restoration, Photo by Author. Richard Whiddington.”Revealing the Secret History of Rembrandt’s ‘Night Watch.'” Artnet. “Operation Night Watch.” Rijksmuseum.

The post Rembrandt, The Night Watch, & Me first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Monday, March 17 is the annual celebration of St. Patrick, usually accompanied by leprechaun illustrations and green beer. In recent years, a meme depicting St. Gertrude of Neville stroking a cat she holds in her arms appears about the same time. Caption: “It happens every year: Patrick this and Patrick that. No one remembers me and my cats.”

Who Was St Gertrude of Nivelles?

Similar to many early female saints, Gertrude (628-659) grew up in a palace. Her father was Pepin of Landen, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia in Merovingian France. He served two kings: Dagobert I who died in 629 and Sigebert III.

An early story about Gertrude describes a royal banquet where Sigebert III asked a ten-year-old Gertrude if she would like to marry the son of an unnamed Duke of the Austrasians. Gertrude apparently didn’t think much of the idea. According to the story, she lost her temper and flatly rejected the proposal saying she would have no earthly spouse, only Christ. No wonder she became a nun.

After Pepin died in 640, his widow Itta of Metz considered what might happen to her and Gertrude, and decided the best option for them both was to build a double monastery of monks and nuns at Nivelles where she and her daughter could retire. This would also secure family lands from being seized via a forced marriage involving Gertrude. Indeed, to prevent Gertrude’s abduction, Itta shaved Gertrude’s head, leaving only a tonsure.

When Itta died in 652, Gertrude became the abbess and began collecting saints’ relics and holy books. She also welcomed teachers, particularly Irish monks. Gertrude appointed others to administer the monastery so she could focus on studying scripture, and caring for the sick, the elderly, and the poor by building churches, monasteries and hospices.

In her personal practice, Gertrude fasted and kept vigils to such a degree that by the age of 32, she was in poor health. She resigned as abbess, and appointed her niece Wulfetrud to the position so she could devote herself to prayer. In March 659, sensing the end of her life was near, Gertrude contacted Ultan, an Irish monk, to ask if he knew the hour of her death. He predicted she would die the next day during Mass. Ultan also advised Gertrude she would pass joyously, because Bishop Patrick and the angels were prepared to receive her. And so it came to be.

Gertrude’s Miracles

The path to sainthood requires authenticated miracles. Gertrude’s first miracle occurred as she stood at the altar of Pope Sixtus II. While praying, she saw a flaming sphere that illuminated the entire basilica. The vision lasted about half an hour.

Gertrude’s second miracle occurred when men, possibly Irish monks, were sailing across the sea. A violent storm blew up, and a sea monster appeared. The sailors, of course, were terrified. In desperation, the believers called to Gertrude to save them. Immediately, the storm died and the monster dove back into the sea.

And the Cats?

There is no hagiography about Gertrude and cats. However, she is associated with driving out rodents who were so plentiful they ran up Gertrude’s crozier and onto her hood. Cringe! Since cats are known predators of rodents, it is probable the monastery had numerous working cats. The public association of St. Gertrude and cats began about 1982.

A Few Patrick Factoids

St. Patrick is celebrated as the saint who drove the snakes out of Ireland. A marvelous feat, to be sure, but apparently there were no snakes in Ireland to drive out. The term ‘snakes’ was an allegory for non-Christian practices.

St. Patrick has never been canonized by the Catholic Church, which means he is not, technically, a saint. However, in 1631, the church did establish a feast day for Patrick.

March 17 is the day of Patrick’s death. Prior to becoming a popular saint’s day, March 17 honored Ostara, the goddess who brought nature’s rebirth and balance.

And, about that green beer. It wasn’t until 1961 that Irish citizens could celebrate St. Patrick’s Day at the local pub, because St. Patrick’s Day falls during Lent. Sláinte!

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

St. Gertrude of Nivelles, 1520; St. Gertrude of Nivelles from the Hours of Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg; St. Gertrude with Augustinian Canoness, 16th century; St. Gertrude with Mice, St Patrick Catholic Church, Junction City, Ohio. Photo by Nyehob; Consumed mug of green beer by Mconderan. Rene Ostberg.” Meet Gertrude, Cat Lady of the Catholic Church.” U.S. Catholic. March 16, 2020.

The post St. Gertrude’s Cats first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Pillion is a new word in my vocabulary. According to Merriam-Webster, a pillion is a light saddle for women consisting chiefly of a cushion, OR a pad or cushion put on behind a man’s saddle, chiefly for a woman to ride on, OR a motorcycle or bicycle saddle for a passenger. The word pillion seems like it might be French, but is actually derived from either Scots Gaelic or Irish. The first known use of the word was in 1503.

The illustration on the left is from 1806 and depicts a woman riding pillion behind a man. In the upper sketch, the horse is walking, the preferred pace for riding pillion if the rider hopes to stay connected to her seat. The lower sketch demonstrates what happens if the horse goes into a gallop. The rider hangs onto the man as tightly as she can. Sometimes she isn’t able to hold on tightly enough, and has a brief moment of flight before crashing into the ground as depicted in the illustration on the right.

The pillion itself, as described in the 1806 Once a Week periodical, was a thick, firm, well-stuffed, wide and level cushion, extending quite across the broadest part of the horse, with two deep flaps, one on either side. The rider in some, but I suspect not all, instances had a footstool for her feet formed by a long stirrup on one side. Over the horse’s tail, there was a leather handle the passenger could grasp.

As a writer of historical fiction, I encounter many details that lead me into further research. My current project takes place during the infamous witch trials of 17th century Salem. The local constable has to transport one of the prisoners, Sarah Good, from Salem Village [now Danvers] to Ipswich Jail. Accounts say the prisoner rode pillion behind the constable. Hmm, I thought, how does one ride pillion? So, off I went for a quick mental research trip. As it happened, Sarah Good managed to slide off the horse and attempted to escape. Alas, she failed to reach her goal. Women continued to “ride pillion” into the early 20th century, depending on their locale.

Anne of Bohemia’s Sidesaddle

In the 14th century, the first modifications were made to convert “riding pillion” into riding in a sidesaddle arrangement. The first well-known practitioner of this transition was Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394) who, at the age of fifteen, left her home in Bohemia to marry Richard II of England.

The match was not particularly lucrative. Anne did not bring Richard a dowry. In fact, Richard paid 20,000 florins [over 5 million dollars in modern currency] to Anne’s brother Wenceslas IV of Bohemia. Anne was the sister of Sigismund, the Holy Roman Emperor, so there were some diplomatic and trade benefits.

Anne and her entourage had a journey of approximately 600 miles over varying terrain from Prague to Calais where she boarded a vessel bound for England. The only practical way for her to travel was to ride horseback. However for reasons of modesty, Ann could not straddle a horse with her legs apart, no matter how many skirts might cover them.

So Anne rode a palfrey, a horse prized for its smooth, ambling gait. [An ambling gate was a four-beat gate that was faster than a walk but slower than a cantor.] In particular, the palfrey was considered an appropriate horse for a woman to ride. In the above illustration the female is riding astride. Anne, however, rode on a saddle mounted onto the horse’s back. Anne sat sideways at a right angle to the horse’s head and could not control her horse, which was led by a man.

The marriage, incidentally, appears to have been a happy one, though the couple had no children. Anne died from the plague in 1394.

The Sidesaddle Evolves

In the 16th century, Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) improved what had become known as a sidesaddle by devising a saddle with a single pommel so the rider could hook her right leg over the saddle. The rider could now sit with her shoulders forward in the saddle, and control her own horse using the reins. Moreover, the horse could canter without dislodging the rider. It only seems fitting that one of Catherine’s famous quotations is The first lesson I ever learned was never to wait for a man’s rescue.

Overtime, sidesaddles continued to be improved. During the 19th century a leaping head pommel provided greater security for the rider so that women could participate in hunting and jumping events while continuing to maintain their modesty.

During the early 20th century, riding sidesaddle became increasingly rare until Downton Abbey became a popular television series set between 1912 and 1926. Social media has also popularized riding sidesaddle. Sidesaddles and their riders can be found at horse show rings, historical reenactments, parades, and various equestrian competitions such as dressage.

A chance source about Sarah Good’s transport to Ipswich Jail introduced me to historic details about women’s modesty and control when riding on horseback. No wonder I enjoy writing historical fiction so much.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Riding Pillion-1, Once a Week, Series 1, Vol. 3, 1860; Riding Pillion-2, Ibid; Coldrich a Bozena, 14th century; Anne de Foix, Queen of Hungary & Bohemia, 16th century; Katharina von Medici; Gray Parker from Horsemanship for Women, 1887; Mrs. Thomas N. Carter, 1902. Merriam Webster page for pillion. Margaret Evans. “The Heritage & Skill of Riding Sidesaddle.” Horse Journals. Jan. 9, 2021.

The post Riding Pillion first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Janus, the Roman god of new beginnings, transitions, and thresholds has a brief moment of recognition in his namesake month. The ancient Roman calendar was a 10-month lunar year of 304 days, and an awkward gap of 61 days. The year began in March, the start of the new agricultural year.

By 45 BCE the lunar calendar did not meet the needs of the growing Roman Republic. Julius Caesar introduced a solar calendar and added two new months. January, the first month of the new year, was named for Janus. February takes its name from a Roman purification festival called Februa.

The first day of January took on political overtones after 153 BCE, when Roman consuls took office the first day of January offering prayers to Janus for a successful transition.

Today, January still marks the beginning of a new year and new political appointments as well as a time for reflection on the past and setting goals. As we embark on this annual ritual, we seldom think of Janus. But he was, in his way, an interesting deity. Janus does not need to turn his head to look forward or back, seeing both directions clearly. He carried a staff in his right hand to aid travelers, and a key in his left to open gates. According to Roman mythology, Janus was present when the world began.

Unlike most Roman gods, Janus has no Greek counterpart. He was a god of agriculture, assisting Saturn, the god of sowing seeds. Mars was the god of war, but Janus oversaw the beginning and end of warfare. Janus was associated with travel, trade, and sailing, and presided over public ceremonies such as the opening of the Senate. He was present at weddings, births, and the annual harvest.

Numa Pompilius, Rome’s second king, founded a shrine for Janus in the Forum near the place it was said Janus bubbled up in a hot spring in order to thwart the Sabine attack on Rome in the 6th century BCE. The shrine had gates at each end and a bronze statue of Janus in the middle with a head facing each gate. When the gates were open, the nation was at war; when they were closed, Rome’s enemies were pacified. According to Plutarch, during Numa’s reign, the gates were closed for 43 years. In 13 BCE, Caesar Augustus closed the gates to note the Roman defeat of Spain and Germany.

In more recent times, it seems Janus’s gates never close.

Romans believed Janus helped control uncontrollable forces, for example, the opening or closing of a war. These aspects were a more challenging part of conflict than the war itself, because they were the most unpredictable. On an individual level, Janus provided a sense of security in changing times. Ironically, when Rome shifted into the Christian age, the Janiculum Temple became a Christian church.

In this modern age, we can look at past events, but aside from plans and resolutions that may or may not be completed, we have no way to predict the future. We can make plans and work to bring them to fruition, but ultimately we can only react to events after they happen as we move forward into an unpredictable future.

Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Photo of Janus from monument in Italy by Giuseppe Savo; Temple of Janus coin, Classical Numismatic Group Inc.; Louis de Boullogne, Emperor Augustus Closes the Doors of the Temple of Janus; Goddard engineer Tom Grubb manipulates a 3D simulation. NASA/Chris Gunn. Caillan Davenport. “Who was Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings?” The Conversation. Dec 31 2017.

The post Janus, The God of Transitions first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

In the Northern Hemisphere, Winter Solstice will happen on December 21st, marking the season of Yule. It is the shortest day of the year, while also marking the slow return of longer days. Winter begins, but also heralds the hope of spring.

At Stonehenge, Neolithic builders shaped the standing stones to frame the winter and summer solstices. On the winter solstice, the sun sets southwest of the stone circle.

The Winter Solstice also ushers in the pagan season of Yule which directly follows Samhain. Once again, fire is an important element of the festival, this time to denote the sun’s return. Yule logs were burned to symbolize heat and the returning sun. Of course, the massive fire brought actual heat as well during the cold nights.

According to legend, Yuletide is a celebration of the Holly King’s victory over the Oak King. The two kings engage in a constant struggle related to seasonal cycles. The Oak King of summer gives way to the Holly King of winter until the cycle shifts again.

Yuletide celebrations begin with the Yule Log, a full tree that was brought inside the house. It could be fed into the fireplace and burned from the bottom with the tree extending into the room. As the fire burned, the tree was pushed further into the hearth. Alternatively, the tree could be cut into 12 sections for the 12 days of celebration.

As to the feasting, excavations at Durrington Walls, a Neolithic village near Stonehenge, offer some interesting suggestions. Archeologists have uncovered 38,000 pig and cattle bones, the remains of about 1000 animals. It appears they were slaughtered at about the age of 9 months, so they would have been born in the spring. Animal sacrifices are thought to have been part of the celebrations.

Celts thought that the sun stood still for 12 days during the Solstice. During this time the earth is, in fact, tilted at its furthest point from the sun, which is why the sun is at its lowest point in the sky.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Stonehenge at Dawn Winter Solstice by Mike Peel; Wheel of the Year by Imbolc.cerddwr; Yule Log Being Brought into Hever Castle by Robert Alexander Hillingford; Position & Timing of Solstice. “Winter Solstice & Stonehenge” English Heritage. Catherine Boeckmann. “The Story Behind Yule & the Yuletide Season.” Farmers’ Almanac. Oct. 22, 2024.

The post YULE: A CELEBRATION OF WINTER SOLSTICE first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

Samhain [pronounced SOW-wen] is an ancient Celtic celebration marking the death of the warmer half of the year and beginning the next cycle in the Wheel of the Year. The year turns between sunset October 31 and sunset November 1. The specific dates are somewhat arbitrary. Suffice to say, Samhain marks the year’s turning from old to new. It is a time when the veil between the worlds of the living and the dead is thin. A time to take precautions against evil spirits who may damage crops, frighten people, harm or hide livestock, and/or haunt homes.

Bonfires, or Fire Festivals, were and still are an important element of the celebrations. In days past, people set huge fires on top of hills where they burned crops and animals as sacrifices to Celtic gods. Participants wore costumes, usually animal heads and skins, as a precaution against evil spirits.

When the bonfires died down, people took embers to relight their hearth fires at home as protection from the coming winter.

The oldest stories of Samhain come from Irish tradition. During Samhain, burial mounds opened as portals to the “Otherworld,” which made human contact with fairies more likely. The souls of deceased family members went to their former homes where living family members set a place at the table for them. Celebrations also featured mumming and guising during which children and the poor went door-to-door reciting verses in exchange for soul cakes.

Soul Cakes were small, round cakes made with sweet spices, such as allspice, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger and raisins or currents. A cross marked the top the cake. The cakes, called “souls,” honored the dead and might be left as offerings with a glass of wine, or exchanged for prayers in a custom called “soiling.”

Rituals also included rounding up cattle for the winter and culling them to determine which livestock would be kept for the winter and which would be slaughtered so their meat might be preserved. Feasts were a way to consume perishable items before winter set in.

Traditional celebratory foods included:
Colcannon, a hearty dish of mashed potatoes with kale or cabbage. Charms were hidden in the food, and could predict the future of persons who discovered them.

Barmbrack, a fruity Irish soda bread. Any given slice might contain a charm to predict the diner’s future.

Apples symbolized immortality and Cider celebrated the final harvest.
Beef Stew with late harvest vegetables and meat from the recently slaughtered cattle was another traditional choice

About A.D 1000, the Church proclaimed November 2 to be All Souls’ Day as a replacement for Samhain celebrations. All Souls’ Day celebrations also included bonfires and costumes which no longer resembled animals but morphed into images of saints, angels, and devils.

November 1 became All Saints’ Day, also called All-hallows. The night before All Saints’ Day became All Hallows Eve, now called Halloween.

Halloween colors continue in the Celtic tradition: black for the death of summer, and orange for the autumn harvest season.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

Neopagan Celebrates Samhain, Unknown Author; Wheel of the Year; Soul Cakes by Malikhpur; My Harvest Home by John Glover, 1835; Barmbrack; Snap Apple Night by Daniel Maclise, 1833. Luna Crowwing. “Everything You Need To Know About Samhain.” Busy Pagan. April 28, 2024. Ronald L. Dart. “Halloween, Ghosts & Spirits.” Born to Win. October 19,1996.

The post Samhain — The Witches’ New Year first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

In the northern hemisphere, October marks the transition from summer to fall. Pumpkins appear at grocery and garden stores. Leaves swirl in the breeze before dropping in colorful abandon. The days grow shorter. Pumpkin spice is everywhere, especially in coffee and pastries. Neighbors put skeletal Halloween decorations in their yards. And, in general, we become more aware of black cats. This could be because their fur contrasts so nicely with pumpkins and autumnal leaves. Or, it could be the long association of Halloween, witches, and black cats.

Feline history has a contradictory past. Cats were considered harbingers of good fortune until the 13th century when they fell from grace.

In Ancient Times, Cats Were Worshipped as Gods; They Have Not Forgotten This. — Terry Pratchett

Ancient Egyptians worshipped cats as goddesses. The furry felines were held in such high esteem, that accidentally killing a cat could be punished with the death sentence. Certainly, cats were important for their role in protecting grain supplies from rodents and birds. But it was more than that.

GODDESSES BASTET, SEKHMET & MAFDET

Bastet was the goddess of protection, pleasure, and good health. She also protected her father Ra, the sun god whose gift of light powered Egyptian civilization. During the day, Bastet rode in Ra’s chariot as he crossed from one horizon to the other. At night while Ra rested, Bastet transformed into a cat to protect Ra from his enemy Apep, the serpent. Bastet carried a sistrum in her right hand.

Sekhmet, the Egyptian goddess of war, protected the pharaohs she led into battle. It was she who created the fire in Ra’s eye so he could destroy his enemies. She was alternately depicted as a lioness, or a woman with the head of a lion. She was associated with healing and medicine.

Finally, there is Mafdet, a woman with the head of a cheetah and braided hair that ended in scorpion tails. She too protected Ra, keeping his chambers clear of snakes, scorpions and evil. She also served as goddess of judgement, justice, and execution by ripping out the hearts of miscreants and bringing them to Pharaoh’s feet.

Over time, domestic cats became sacred as a living incarnation of Bastet. When they died, they were mummified, placed in a coffin and buried in cat cemeteries. Mummified cats were also placed in tombs to provide the occupant with protection in the underworld.

Deities in subsequent ancient civilizations also had associations with cats. The Roman goddess Diana’s primary identification was as a huntress, but she could also change into a cat form to take refuge with the moon. Diana is often shown with a crescent moon in her hair.

Libertas, the goddess of Liberty, was often depicted with a cat. In her temple, the goddess wore a white robe with a scepter in one hand and a velvet Phrygian cap in the other with a cat at her feet. The cap was worn by freed slaves to signify their liberty while the cat represented independence. Romans honored feline attributes with the saying Libertas sine Labore – Liberty without Labor.

Felines Fall From Grace

As the Christian Church became more powerful, its leaders had little patience for what they perceived as pagan connections between humans and animals. In particular, Pope Gregory IX wanted to weed out so-called heretics. On June 13, 1233 the pope issued Vox in Rama to King Henry of Germany in an effort to stop the heretical Luciferian cult that revered the devil. The document described some of the cult’s devil worship, including how the devil took the form of a black cat and required initiates to kiss the cat’s behind. It didn’t take long before people associated black cats with the devil, and began killing them in order to break evil spells.

In Denmark, the period before Easter known as Lent became a time when evil had to be purged so that spring could return. Since black cats were the devil, they were killed. The same was true in France. In Belgium cats were thrown down from the church belfry during Kattenstoet. The Festival of Cats still continues with stuffed cats substituted for live animals.

Superstitions about black cats continue today, though they can be contradictory. On the one hand, if a black cat crosses your path it’s bad luck due to their connection to witches. But another legend says that if a black cat crosses your path, a guardian angel is sending good fortune. Interesting how the more common superstition is the negative one.

Black Cat Facts

Negative superstitions about black cats result in their low shelter adoption rates and high euthanasia rates.

Black cats are more common than other feline cat colors, because eumelanin, the pigment for black fur, is their dominant pigment gene. Kittens get two copies of a given gene from their parents. If one of the codes is for black fur, the kitten has black fur.

However, the only cat that is entirely black is the Bombay cat, a breed developed in 1952 by crossing a Sable Burmese cat with a black American shorthair. Breeders hoped to create a cat resembling a miniature black leopard. The breed was given the name “Bombay” [now Mumbai] after the city near the habitat of the Indian black leopard.

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Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

Illustrations & A Few Sources

“A Merry Halloween” postcard, 1910; Goddess Bastet by Eternal Space; Goddess Sekhmet by Eternal Space; Goddess Mafdet by Eternal Space; Mummified Cat in Fitchburg Art Museum; Diana the Huntress by Guillaume Seignac; Cat Festival in Belgium by Zeisterre; Bombay Cat by Pititebilette. Natasha Sheldon. “Thou Shalt Not Suffer a Cat to Live.” History Collection. May 5, 2018. Granny Syufy. “Myths & Superstitions About Black Cats.” Spruce Pets. August 14, 2024.

The post Black Cats —From Revered to Feared first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.

After learning about Puritan taverns [see previous blog], I began researching 17^th century “church-raising” in Salem Village.  The process is basically the same thing as a barn-raising, and requires almost complete community participation to raise the walls and connect them to the roof rafters. But research often leads to unexpected results.

Apparently, the town of Medford rewarded participants in the local church-raising with a beverage which required “four barrels of beer, 24 gallons of West India rum,30 gallons of New England rum, 35 pounds of loaf sugar; 25 pounds of brown sugar; 465 lemons.” * In other words, a very large rum punch. Intrigued, I shifted my focus away from churches to 17^th century rum punch. The beverage was immensely popular on both sides of the Atlantic from about 1650 to 1850. In a way, rum punch was an alcoholic symbol of the British empire. Rum and sugar came from the West Indies; tea from the East Indies, and citrus fruit from southern Europe.

Rum Punch, Beverage of the British Empire

Whene’er a bowl of punch we make,
Four striking opposites we take,
The strong, the weak, the sour, the sweet,

Together mixed most kindly meet.
And when they happily unite,
The bowl is pregnant with delight.

Anecdotal history credits sailors and merchants in the British East India Company with creating Punch after supplies of beer and wine ran low.

The term punch, some say, is derived from the Hindi word for five (later reduced to four), and refers to the number of required ingredients:

One part sour — usually lemon or lime juice to provide the kick
Two parts sweet — sugar, both in granulated and solid form, to balance the citrus acidity
Three parts strong — originally local arak, soon replaced by Caribbean rum
Four parts weak — water, later replaced by black tea
Complete with a dash of bitters—Accent with ground nutmeg

All these ingredients were expensive, which made punch a beverage of wealthy upper and merchant classes.

And then, there was the method of indulgence.

Punch was served in a large silver or porcelain punch bowl. Consumption was a convivial event. Rather than using a ladle to pour the libation into tankards or cups, drinkers tipped small glasses into the bowl. This kept the group together, unwilling to leave the flowing bowl.

Punch drinkers often found themselves slipping onto the floor with their wigs askew. One housewife called the punch bowl the nastiest, sloppiest cluster ever placed on dining room table. Patrons constantly filling glasses from the flowing bowl with increasingly unsteady hands, created a table swimming in punch and a drenched floor.

Admiral Russell’s Very Large Punch Party

The most famous punch party was the one held in Spain by Admiral Edward Russell on either Christmas Day or October 25, 1694, depending on the source material.

Admiral Russell expected to return to England with his fleet for the Christmas holiday. Alas, King William III ordered Russell to winter in Cadiz. Admiral Russell was very disappointed, allegedly saying, “I am at present under a doubt with myself whether it is better not to die.” [I suggest Admiral Russell was a man who wanted his Christmas pudding.]

To console himself in his disappointment, Admiral Russell decided to throw a party for 6,000 officers in the Royal Navy fleet at Cadiz and charge it to the government. There were over 150 different items on the menu, all forgotten now.

But the centerpiece was the rum punch which was prepared in a Delft fountain that could hold 12 hogsheads [700 gallons] of rum punch. The party lasted until the fountain was dry — about a week.

The punch recipe called for 4 hogsheads of brandy, 1 pipe of Malaga wine, 20 gallons of lime juice, 2500 lemons, 13 underweight of fine white sugar, 5 pounds of grated nutmegs, and 8 hogsheads of water.

One guest recalled:
“There was in the middle of a garden of lemons and oranges… a fountain which was set with Dutch tiles in the bottom and sides, and was made clean as a Japan punchbowl. In this fountain, on Christmas-day was poured six butts of water, half a hogshead of strong mountain Malaga wine, two hundred gallons of brandy, six hundredweight of sugar, twelve thousand lemons, and nutmegs and sugar in proportion.”

Since it would be impossible for guests to dip their glasses into the bowl, a young man in a rowboat rowed around the fountain mixing the ingredients with his oars and serving the guests. The oarsman could only work a 15 minute shift; otherwise he could pass out from the fumes.

Eventually, a guest decided it would be fun to jump in the fountain. Soon, almost everyone wanted to splash around. “In went the mob with their shoes and stockings and all on, and like to have turned the boat with the boy over, and so he might have been drowned in punch …”

If you’d like to enjoy a single serving of rum punch, you can check out the process here:

Sandra’s Books: Sea Tigers & Merchants. Ambition, Arrogance & Pride. Saxon Heroines. Two Coins. Rama’s Labyrinth.

*Edward Field. The Colonial Tavern. 1897. Page 8.

Illustrations & A Few Sources:

Punchbowl Sign, The Punch Bowl, Hurlfield Road, Sheffield by Ian S; Lemons by André Karwath aka Aka; Nutmegs by Ganesh Mohan T; Silver Punch Bowl. 1680-81; Old English Glassware; A Glee, 1786; HMS Tiger taking the “Schakerloo” in the harbor of Cadiz, 1674; Admiral Russell by Thomas Gibson, 1715; Cadiz-Fuente by ikerbuffon; Miniature boats in fountain by DiscoA340. Ryan Greene. “Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: Top 5 most Outrageous Parties in History.” Watson Adventures. Apr 12, 2021. Simon Difford. “History of Punch.” Difford’s Guide. Wendy Leigh. “The 17^th Century Rum Punch Recipe That’s Remembered by Rhyme.” Tasting Table. Dec 4, 2022.

The post Rum Punch, An Imperial Tipple first appeared on Sandra Wagner-Wright.